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Table of ContentsPreface
Introduction: Film History and How It Is Done
PART ONE: EARLY CINEMA1 THE INVENTION AND EARLY YEARS OF THE CINEMA, 1880s-1904
The Invention of the Cinema
Preconditions for Motion Pictures
Major Precursors of Motion Pictures
An International Process of Invention
Early Filmmaking and Exhibition
Scenics, Topicals, and Fiction Films
Creating an Appealing Program
The Growth of the French Film Industry
England and the "Brighton School"
The United States: Competition and the Resurgence of Edison
Notes and Queries
Identification and Preservation of Early Films
Reviving Interest in Early Cinema: The Brighton Conference
References
Further Reading
2 THE INTERNATIONAL EXPANSION OF THE CINEMA, 1905-1912
Film Production in Europe
France: Pathé versus Gaumont
Italy: Growth through Spectacle
Denmark: Nordisk and Ole Olsen
Other Countries
The Struggle for the Expanding American Film Industry
The Nickeodeon Boom
The Motion Picture Patents Company versus the Independents
Social Pressures and Self-Censorship
The Rise of the Feature Film
The Star System
The Movies Move to Hollywood
The Problem of Narrative Clarity
Early Moves toward Classical Storytelling
Intertitles
Camera Position and Acting
Color
Set Design and Lighting
The Beginnings of the Continuity System
An International Style
Notes and Queries
Griffith's Importance in the Development of Film Style
References
Further Reading
3 NATIONAL CINEMA, HOLLYWOOD CLASSICISM, AND WORLD WAR I, 1905-1919
The American Takeover of World Markets
The Rise of National Cinemas
Germany
Italy
Russia
France
Denmark
Sweden
The Classical Hollywood Cinema
The Major Studios Begin to Form
Controlling Filmmaking
Filmmaking in Hollywood during the 1910s
Films and Filmmakers
Streamlining American Animation
Small Producing Countries
Notes and Queries
The Ongoing Rediscovery of the 1910s
Further Reading
PART TWO: THE LATE SILENT ERA, 1919-1929
4 FRANCE IN THE 1920S
The French Film Industry after World War I
Competition from Imports
Disunity within the Film Industry
Outdated Production Facilities
Major Postwar Genres
The French Impressionist Movement
The Impressionists' Relation to the Industry
Impressionist Theory
Formal Traits of Impressionism
The End of French Impressionism
The Filmmakers Go Their Own Ways
Problems within the Film Industry
Notes and Queries
French Impressionist Theory and Criticism
Restoration Work on Napoléon
References
Further Reading
5 GERMANY IN THE 1920s
The German Situation after World War I
Genres and Styles of German Postwar Cinema
Spectacles
The German Expressionist Movement
Kammerspiel
German Films Abroad
Major Changes in the Mid- to Late 1920s
The Technological Updating of the German Studios
The End of Inflation
The End of the Expressionist Movement
New Objectivity
Export and Classical Style
Notes and Queries
German Cinema and German Society
Expressionism, New Objectivity, and the Other Arts
References
Further Reading
6 SOVIET CINEMA IN THE 1920s
The Hardships of War Communism, 1918-1920
Recovery under the New Economic Policy, 1921-1924
Increased State Control and the Montage Movement, 1925-1930
Growth and Export in the Film Industry
The Influence of Constructivism
A New Generation: The Montage Filmmakers
The Theoretical Writings of Montage Filmmakers
Soviet Montage Form and Style
Other Soviet Films
The Five-Year Plan and the End of the Montage Movement
Notes and Queries
Film Industry and Governmental Policy: A Tangled History
The Kuleshov Effect
The Russian Formalists and the Cinema
References
Further Reading
7 THE LATE SILENT ERA IN HOLLYWOOD, 1920-1928
Theater Chains and the Structure of the Industry
Vertical Integration
Picture Palaces
The Big Three and the Little Five
The Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America
Studio Filmmaking
Style and Technological Changes
Big-Budget Films of the 1920s
New Investments and Blockbusters
Genres and Directors
Foreign Filmmakers in Hollywood
Films for African-American Audiences
The Animated Part of the Program
Notes and Queries
The Rediscovery of Buster Keaton
References
Further Reading
8 INTERNATIONAL TRENDS OF THE 1920s
"Film Europe"
Concrete Steps toward Cooperation
Success Cut Short
The "International Style"
Carl Dreyer: European Director
Film Experiments Outside the Mainstream Industry
Documentary Features Gain Prominence
Commercial Filmmaking Internationally
Japan
Great Britain
Italy
Some Small Producing Countries
Notes and Queries
Different Versions of Silent Classics
References
Further Reading
PART THREE: THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOUND CINEMA, 1926-1945
9 THE INTRODUCTION OF SOUND
Sound in the United States
Warner Bros. and Vitaphone
Sound-on-Film Is Adopted
Sound and Filmmaking
Germany Challenges Hollywood
Dividing the International Pie
The Early Sound Era in Germany
The USSR Pursues Its Own Path to Sound
The International Adoption of Sound
France
Great Britain
Japan
Wiring the World's Theaters for Sound
Crossing the Language Barrier
Notes and Queries
Filmmakers on the Coming of Sound
Sound and the Revision of Film History
References
Further Reading
10 THE HOLLYWOOD STUDIO SYSTEM, 1930-1945
The New Structure of the Film Industry
The Big Five
The Little Three
The Independents
Exhibition Practice in the 1930s
Continued Innovation in Hollywood
Sound Recording
Camera Movement
Technicolor
Special Effects
Cinematography Styles
Major Directors
The Older Generation
New Directors
Émigré Directors
Genre Innovations and Transformations
The Musical
The Screwball Comedy
The Horror Film
The Social Problem Film
The Gangster Film
Film Noir
The War Film
Animation and the Studio System
Notes and Queries
The Controversy over Orson Welles
References
Further Reading
11 OTHER STUDIO SYSTEMS
Quota Quickies and Wartime Pressures: The British Studios
The British Film Industry Grows
Export Successes
Alfred Hitchcock's Thrillers
Crisis and Recovery
The Effects of the War
Innovation within an Industry: The Studio System of Japan
Popular Cinema of the 1930s
The Pacific War
India: An Industry Built on Music
A Highly Fragmented Business
Mythologicals, Socials, Devotionals
Independents Weaken the System
China: Filmmaking Caught between Left and Right
Notes and Queries
Japanese Cinema Rediscovered
References
Further Reading
12 Cinema and the State: The USSR, Germany, and Italy, 1930-1945
The Soviet Union: Socialist Realism and World War II
Films of the Early 1930s
The Doctrine of Socialist Realism
The Main Genres of Socialist Realism
The Soviet Cinema in Wartime
The German Cinema under the Nazis
The Nazi Regime and the Film Industry
Films of the Nazi Era
The Aftermath of the Nazi Cinema
Italy: Propaganda versus Entertainment
Industry Tendencies
A Cinema of Distraction
A New Realism?
Notes and Queries
The Case of Leni Riefenstahl
References
Further Reading
13 FRANCE: POETIC REALISM, THE POPULAR FRONT AND THE OCCUPATION, 1930-1945
The Industry and Filmmaking during the 1930s
Production Problems and Artistic Freedom
Quality Studio Filmmaking
Émigrés in France
Everyday Realism
Poetic Realism
Doomed Lovers, Atmospheric Settings
The Creative Burst of Jean Renoir
Brief Interlude: The Popular Front
Filmmaking in Occupied and Vichy France
The Situation of the Film Industry
Films of the Occupation Period
Notes and Queries
Renewed Interest in the Popular Front
Reference
Further Reading
14 LEFTIST, DOCUMENTARY, AND EXPERIMENTAL CINEMA, 1930-1945
The Spread of Political Cinema
The United States
Germany
Belgium and the Netherlands
Great Britain
International Leftist Filmmaking in the Late 1930s
Government- and Corporate-sponsored Documentaries
The United States
Great Britain
Wartime Documentaries
Hollywood Directors and the War
Great Britain
Germany and the USSR
The International Experimental Cinema
Experimental Narratives and Lyrical Films
Surrealism
Animation
References
Further Reading
PART FOUR: THE POSTWAR ERA, 1946-1960s
15 AMERICAN CINEMA IN THE POSTWAR ERA, 1946-1960
1946/1947/1948
The HUAC Hearings: The Cold War Reaches Hollywood
The Paramount Decision
The Decline of the Hollywood Studio System
Changing Lifestyles and Competing Entertainment
Wider and More Colorful Movies
Hollywood Adjusts to Television
Art Cinemas and Drive-ins
Challenges to Censorship
The New Power of the Individual Film
Roadshow Distribution and Exhibition
The Rise of the Independents
Mainstream Independents: Agents, Star Power, and the Package
Exploitation
Independents on the Fringes
Classical Hollywood Filmmaking: A Continuing Tradition
Complexity and Realism in Storytelling
Stylistic Changes
New Twists on Old Genres
Major Directors: Several Generations
Veterans of the Studio Era
Émigrés Stay On
Welles's Struggle with Hollywood
The Impact of the Theater
New Directors
Notes and Queries
Widescreen Formats in Subsequent History
References
Further Reading
16 POSTWAR EUROPEAN CINEMA: NEOREALISM AND ITS CONTEXT, 1945-1959
The Postwar Context
Film Industries and Film Culture
West Germany: "Papas Kino"
Resistance to U.S. Encroachment
Art Cinema: The Return of Modernism
Italy: Neorealism and After
Italian Spring
Defining Neorealism
Beyond Neorealism
A Spanish Neorealism?
Notes and Queries
Controversies around Neorealism
References
Further Reading
17 POSTWAR EUROPEAN CINEMA: FRANCE, SCANDINAVIA, AND BRITAIN, 1945-1959
French Cinema of the Postwar Decade
The Industry Recovers
The Tradition of Quality
The Return of Older Directors
New Independent Directors
Scandinavian Revival
England: Quality and Comedy
Problems in the Industry
Literary Heritage and Eccentricity
Arthouse Success Abroad
Notes and Queries
Postwar French Film Theory
The Powell-Pressburger Revival
References
Further Reading
18 POSTWAR CINEMA BEYOND THE WEST, 1945-1959
General Tendencies
Japan
Industry Recovery under the Occupation
The Veteran Directors
The War Generation
Postwar Cinema in the Soviet Sphere of Influence
The USSR from High Stalinism to the Thaw
Obstacles of the Postwar Years
Stalin's Death and the New Humanism
Postwar Cinema in Eastern Europe
People's Republic of China
Civil War and Revolution
Mixing Maoism and Tradition
India
A Disorganized but Prolific Industry
The Populist Tradition and Raj Kapoor
Swimming Against the Stream: Guru Dutt and Ritwik Ghatak
Latin America
Argentina and Brazil
The Mexican Popular Cinema
Notes and Queries
De-Stalinization and the Disappearing Act
References
Further Reading
19 ART CINEMA AND THE IDEA OF AUTHORSHIP
The Rise and Spread of the Auteur Theory
Authorship and the Growth of the Art Cinema
Luis Buñuel (1900-1983)
Ingmar Bergman (1918- )
Akira Kurosawa (1910-1998)
Federico Fellini (1920-1993)
Michelangelo Antonioni (1912- )
Robert Bresson (1907-1999)
Jacques Tati (1908-1982)
Satyajit Ray (1921-1992)
Notes and Queries
The Impact of Auteurism
Auteurism and the American Cinema
1950s and 1960s Modernist Cinema
References
Further Reading
20 NEW WAVES AND YOUNG CINEMA, 1958-1967
The Industries' New Needs
Formal and Stylistic Trends
France: New Wave and New Cinema
The New Wave
French New Cinema: The Left Bank
Italy: Young Cinema and Spaghetti Westerns
Great Britain: "Kitchen Sink" Cinema
Young German Film
New Cinema in the USSR and Eastern Europe
Young Cinema in the Soviet Union
New Waves in Eastern Europe
The Japanese New Wave
Brazil: Cinema Nôvo
Notes and Queries
Censorship and the French New Wave
New Film Theory
References
Further Reading
21 DOCUMENTARY AND EXPERIMENTAL CINEMA IN THE POSTWAR ERA,1945-MID-1960s
Toward the Personal Documentary
Innovative Trends
The National Film Board and "Free Cinema"
France: The Auteurs' Documentaries
Jean Rouch and Ethnographic Documentary
Direct Cinema
The United States: Drew and Associates
Direct Cinema in Bilingual Canada
France: Cinéma vérité
Experimental and Avant-garde Cinema
Abstraction, Collage, and Personal Expression
Underground and Expanded Cinema
Stretching the Limits of Taste and the Medium
Notes and Queries
Writing the History of the Postwar Avant-garde
References
Further Reading
PART FIVE: NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL TRENDS SINCE THE 1960S
22 HOLLYWOOD'S FALL AND RISE, 1960-1980
1960s: The Film Industry in Recession
The 1960s Crisis
Styles and Genres in the 1960s
Modifying the Classical Studio Style
Identifying the Audience
The New Hollywood: Late 1960s-Late 1970s
Toward and American Art Cinema
The 1970s: Hollywood Strikes Gold
The Return of the Blockbuster
Hollywood Updated
Scorsese as Synthesis
Opportunities for Independents
Notes and Queries
The American Director as Superstar
Film Consciousness and Film Preservation
Exploitation Films and Connoisseurs of "Weird Movies"
References
Further Reading
23 CRITICAL POLITICAL CINEMA OF THE 1960S AND 1970S
Political Filmmaking in the Third World
Revolutionary Aspirations
Political Genres and Styles
Latin America
Black African Cinema
China: Cinema and the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution
Political Filmmaking in the First and Second Worlds
Eastern Europe and the USSR
Political Cinema in the West
Political Modernism
The Politicization of Mainstream Narrative and the Art Film
New Cinema in West Germany: The Political Wing
Notes and Queries
Defining Third World Revolutionary Cinema
Film Studies and the New Film Theory
References
Further Reading
24 DOCUMENTARY AND EXPERIMENTAL FILM SINCE THE LATE 1960s
Documentary Cinema
Direct Cinema and Its Legacy
The Questioning of Documentary
From Structuralism to Pluralism in Avant-garde Cinema
Structural Film
Reactions and Alternatives to Structural Film
New Mergers
Notes and Queries
Rethinking Documentary
The Idea of Structure
The Avant-garde and Postmodernism
References
Further Reading
25 NEW CINEMAS AND NEW DEVELOPMENTS: EUROPE AND THE USSR SINCE THE 1970s
Western Europe
Crisis in the Industry
The Art Cinema Revived: Toward Accessibility
The Arresting Image
Eastern Europe and the USSR
Eastern Europe: From Reform to Revolution
The USSR: The Final Thaw and Its Aftermath
Notes and Queries
The New German Cinema
References
Further Reading
26 NEW CINEMA IN LATIN AMERICA, ASIA, THE PACIFIC RIM, AND AFRICA SINCE THE 1970s
Latin America: Accessibility and Decline
Brazil
Argentina and Elsewhere
Mexico
Cuba and Other Left-Wing Cinemas
Recent Trends
India: A Parallel Cinema
New Cinemas in East Asia and the Pacific Rim
The Philippines
Hong Kong
Taiwan
Mainland China: The Fifth Generation and Their Successors
Japan
Australia
New Zealand
Notes and Queries
Pinning the Tail on Pinochet
Storytelling in Third World Cinema
PART SIX: CINEMA IN THE AGE OF ELECTRONIC MEDIA
27 AMERICAN CINEMA AND THE ENTERTAINMENT ECONOMY: THE 1980s AND AFTER
Hollywood, Movies, and Videotape
Concentration and Consolidation in the Film Industry
The Megapix Mentality
The Bottom Line
Prime Packagers
New Revenue Streams
Megaplexing: The New Face of Exhibition
Artistic Trends
Form and Style
Directors: Coming to Terms with Megapix
Genres
A New Age of Independent Cinema
Support Systems
The Arty Indies
Off-Hollywood Indies
Retro-Hollywood Independents
Digital Cinema
Notes and Queries
Video Versions
George Lucas: Is Film Dead?
References
Further Reading
28 TOWARD A GLOBAL FILM CULTURE
Hollyworld?
The Media Conglomerates
Cooperation and Cooptation
Battles over GATT
Multiplexing the Planet
Regional Trends and the New International Film
Europe and Asia Try to Compete
Media Empires
Global Films from Europe
East Asia: Regional Alliances and Global Efforts
Global Diasporas
The Festival Circuit
Global Subcultures
Video Piracy: An Efficient Distribution System?
Fan Subcultures: Appropriating the Movies
Digital Convergence
The Internet as Movie Billboard
Digital Moviemaking
Notes and Queries
Akira, Gundam, Sailor Moon, and Their Friends
Auteurs on the Web
References
Further Reading
Bibliography
Glossary
Index
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2002 McGraw-Hill Higher Education