Abbreviation
A shortened
version of a word, phrase, or title, often expressed as initials. For
example, FBI is the abbreviation for Federal Bureau of Investigation.
Abstract Idea
A concept
not rooted in concrete experience. Abstract ideas are often explained
through examples. Abstracts
Summaries
or condensations of articles, books, theses, dissertations, films, and
other sources. Reading an abstract is a quick way to determine whether
a more thorough review of the source itself will yield useful information. Adjective
A word or group of
words that describes a noun or pronoun. An adjective tells the reader
something about a person, place, or thing by answering questions such
as "Which?" "What kind of?" and "How many?"
"Silly me,"
cried the old witch, "I misplaced my broom." Adverb
A word or
group of words that modifies or tells something about a verb, an adjective,
or another adverb. Adverbs answer questions such as "Where?" "When?" "How?"
"How often?" and "To what extent?" She
learned math quickly. [Quickly
modifies a verb.] She
learned math very quickly. [Very
modifies an adverb.] She
was extremely bright. [Extremely
modifies an adjective.]
Anecdote A brief,
often humorous, story designed to illustrate a point or idea. An anecdote
can make an excellent introduction to an essay. Antecedent A word to
which a pronoun refers. In the sentence below, Angelo is the antecedent
of the pronoun his. Angelo
asked his brother to pass the milk.
Argumentation A process by which
a writer defends or proves a point or opinion through the use of logic
and evidence.
Article (as a part
of speech) A short word that
comes before a noun. A and an are indefinite articles;
the is the definite article.
Article (in a periodical) An essay published
in a newspaper, magazine, or other periodical.
Audience The person or people
who read one’s writing or listen to his or her speech. It is important
to evaluate one’s audience so as to determine the level and type of
language to use, the amount of information to provide, and the method
by which to present that information. (See Chapters 8 and 10) Top of
DocumentBrainstorming A prewriting method
for gathering information often completed with others. It usually results
in a collection of notes written randomly across a page. Top of
DocumentCause and Effect A method of developing
a paragraph or essay by explaining why something happens.
Central Idea An idea that a
paragraph or essay supports or develops. All the information in a paragraph
or essay should be focused on or related to the central idea. A central idea
is made up of a topic (subject) and a main point expressed about that
topic. Here's an example: Subject | Main
Point | Diabetes | can
be controlled. |
Classification A method of developing
a paragraph or essay by distinguishing types or classes of the subject
being discussed.
Clause A group of words
with a subject and a verb. There are two types of clauses: independent
(main) clauses, which express a complete idea; and dependent
(subordinate) clauses, which do not express a complete idea. Only
independent clauses can be used as complete sentences.
Cliché An expression that
is overused. Using clichés makes your writing stale. cliché:
Janice avoids her in-laws like the plague. fresher: Janice never visits her
in-laws.
Clustering A prewriting technique
used to gather information. Like focused freewriting, clustering uses
free association to record ideas and details at random on a blank piece
of paper. The writer begins by writing the general topic in the middle
of a page, then "clusters" related ideas and details around
that topic.
Coherence The quality of
a paragraph, essay, or other piece of writing that links ideas from
sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph in a manner that
is logical, clear, and easy to follow.
Collective Noun A word that names
a group. Use singular verbs and pronouns with collective nouns that
name one group; use plural verbs and pronouns with collective nouns
that name more than one group. (40.0K)
Colloquialism An informal expression
appropriate in relaxed conversation but inappropriate in formal writing.
Comma Splice A sentence error
in which two main clauses are connected with a comma alone. Comma
Splice: | The
campers hiked through dense woods in the dark,
they knew they were lost. | Revised
: | The
campers hiked through dense woods in the dark;
they knew they were lost. |
Comparison/Contrast Methods of developing
a paragraph or essay. Comparison points out similarities; contrast points
out differences.
Complement A word or group
of words that explains or defines the subject of a sentence and that
is connected to that subject through the use of verbs such as is,
are, was, has been, and will be.
Complete Sentence A group of words
that contains a subject and a verb and that expresses a complete idea.
All complete sentences must contain at least one main (independent)
clause.
CompoundSentence A sentence made
up of two independent (main) clauses that are joined by a coordinating
conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) and a comma. For
example: Budapest
is the capital of Hungary, but Bratislava is the capital of
Slovakia.
Conclusion (as part
of an essay) A formal ending
to an essay that completes the paper’s explanation or argument logically
and clearly. Several methods for writing conclusions appear in Chapter
8.
Conclusion (as a
product of argument) An inference or
generalization drawn from facts or principles. In deduction, the conclusion
is drawn from the major and minor premises of a syllogism: MajorPremise: | All graduating
students must write a senior thesis. | MinorPremise: | Angela
hopes to graduate. | Conclusion: | Angela
must write a senior thesis. |
In induction, a
conclusion is drawn from examining and evaluating separate pieces of
evidence.
| Evidence | | | | Prof. Johnson
teachers four composition courses as Northfield College. | | | Prof. Johnson
teaches two composition courses at Rutland University. | | | Prof. Johnson
teaches an American literature seminar at Haverfield Community College.
| | | Prof. Johnson
is the weekend produce manager at the Rutland Supermarket. | | Conclusion | | | | Prof. Johnson
is a hard worker. |
Conjunction A word that joins
words or ideas. A coordinating conjunction joins words or ideas
of the same importance. A subordinating conjunction joins ideas
by showing that one is less important than the other. Subordinating
conjunctions introduce subordinate (dependent) clauses and join
them to main (independent) clauses. There are seven
coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet. There are several
subordinating conjunctions, including although, as if, because, even
though, rather than, since, though, unless, until, while, and whenever.
Conjunctive Adverb A word or phrase
used with a semicolon to connect two main (independent) clauses. A conjunctive
adverb shows how the main clauses it connects relate to each other.
The most common conjunctive adverbs include: as a
result | in addition | nevertheless | consequently | indeed | nonetheless | however | moreover | therefore |
Contraction A shortened form
in which two words are combined and letters are replaced by an apostrophe. Original | | Contraction | they
are | =
| they're | could
not | =
| couldn't | you
have | =
| you've |
CAUTION: | Using contractions
tends to make writing informal. Therefore, avoid contractions if
you want to maintain a formal tone. |
Coordinating Conjunction A coordinating
conjunction joins words or ideas of the same importance. There are
seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, so,
yet. Top of
DocumentDemonstrative Pronoun A pronoun that
points to a noun that comes after it. That
is my final decision. Those
are his books. This
is my car. These are your unalienable rights.
Definition A method of developing
a paragraph or essay by explaining a term and distinguishing it from
related terms.
Dependent (Subordinate)
Clause A group of words
that cannot stand alone and depends for its meaning on an independent
(main) clause. When it appears in a complete sentence, it is always
attached to an independent (main) clause. Dependent clauses are highlighted
in the sentences below: After
Melissa sang, everyone applauded. Marion Jones, who became company
president, was born in my hometown.
Mozart had composed musical masterpieces before he reached his
teens.
Description A method of developing
a paragraph or essay that is used to explain the nature or people, places,
or things. Descriptive essays often rely heavily on information from
the five senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste.
Details Facts, statistics,
opinions, and other types of information used to develop or support
ideas in paragraphs and essays.
Direct Object A noun or pronoun
that receives the action of a verb. Last
night we watched an old movie.
We enjoyed it.
Direct Quotation An exact, word-for-word
copy of original words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs taken from
a source you are using in a paper. CAUTION:
| Such
material must be enclosed in quotation marks ("/"). |
Draft A version of a
written document. First drafts should always be revised two or three
times at the least.
Drawing a Subject
Tree A prewriting method
used to gather information. The writer begins with a broad subject,
then divides it into subheadings or "branches." The writer
then further subdivides those branches until he or she believes the
topic has been limited sufficiently. Top of
DocumentEditing A stage in the
writing process by which the writer corrects problems in grammar, punctuation,
diction, and other important areas.
Top
of Document FFocus The central idea
in a paragraph or essay. It is often stated in a topic sentence or thesis
statement, but it is sometimes implied.
FocusedFreewriting A prewriting method
used to gather information. The writer focuses on a topic and writes
on it for 5 or 10 minutes nonstop. No special attention is paid to grammar
or other editing considerations at this point in the writing process,
and ideas are recorded in random fashion, just as they come into the
writer’s mind.
Fragment A group or words--a
phrase or subordinate (dependent) clause --that is punctuated as if
it were a sentence, yet it does not express a complete idea. Fragment: | The
maple grew quickly. Towering over smaller pines and birches. | Revised: | The
maple grew quickly. It towered over smaller pines and birches. |
Fused Sentence A sentence error
in which two main (independent) clauses are joined without a conjunction
or correct punctuation. It is also referred to as a run-on sentence. Fused Sentence: | There
was no one near the campsite was deserted. | Revised: | There
was no one near; the campsite was deserted. |
Top of
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Gerund A noun that is
made from a verb by adding -ing. Gerunds name activities. Swimming
is my favorite sport.
Janice loves riding in the country.
Top of
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Illustration A method to develop
a paragraph or essay. Illustration explains abstract ideas by using
concrete examples.
Indefinite Pronoun A pronoun that
refers to people and things that are not named or are not specific: any | everybody | nobody | some | anybody | everyone | no one | somebody | anyone | everything | nothing | someone | each | few | one | something |
Independent (Main)
Clause A group of words
that contains a subject and a verb and that can stand alone as a complete
sentence. Main clauses are highlighted in the sentences below: After
Melissa sang, everyone applauded. Marion Jones, who became company president, was born in
my hometown. Mozart had composed musical masterpieces before he reached
his teens.
Inference A conclusion drawn
from individual pieces of evidence.
Infinitive An infinitive is
the basic form of the verb preceded by to. Infinitives act as
nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. Noun:
To be free is our greatest desire. Adjective:We have the right to
vote. Adverb:I
opened the window to get some fresh air.
Infinitive Phrase A phrase that begins
with an infinitive. Infinitive phrases can be used as subjects and direct
objects. Subject: To
paint was her passion. Direct Object: She loved to paint.
Interjection A word or phrase
that interrupts a thought and often expresses emotion or strong feeling
or is used to call attention: Oh
no, the dog did it again!
Interviewing A prewriting method
used to gather information by asking prepared questions of a person
who has expert knowledge of the topic being addressed.
Introduction A paragraph or
series of paragraphs that begins an essay. Introductions to college
essays usually include a thesis statement. All effective introductions
capture the readers’ attention and entice them to read on. Several methods
for writing introductions appear in Chapter 8.
Irregular Verb A verb that changes
its spelling in different tenses. The most common irregular verb is
to be. Present | Singular | Plural | 1. I
am | 1. we
are | 2. you
are | 2. you
are | 3. he/she
is | 3. they
are |
Past | Singular | Plural | 1. I
was | 1. we
were | 2.
you were | 2. you
were | 3.
he/she was | 3.
they were |
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Jargon Language used by
experts in a specific field. If left undefined, jargon can sometimes
confuse an audience that is unfamiliar with it.
Journal A periodical that
contains articles limited to a particularfield of study. Journals usually
contain scholarly materials written by experts in the discipline, and
they can be very useful to college students. Journals are published
monthly, quarterly, semiannually, or annually.
Journalist’sQuestions Questions that
are used as a way to brainstorm about a topic. Known as the Five
Wsand H, they are the same kind that a reporter uses to
write a news story: What
happened? Who
was involved? When and where did it happen? How did it happen? Why is this event important?
Top of
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that uses lists to record broad details related to a topic. Top of
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Main (Independent)
Clause A group of words
that contains a subject and a verb and that can stand alone as a complete
sentence. Main clauses are highlighted in the sentences below: After
Melissa sang, everyone applauded. Marion Jones, who became company president, was born in
my hometown. Mozart had composed musical masterpieces before he reached
his teens.
MainPoint A central idea is composed of a subject (topic)
and a main point. The main point is the specific statement the writer
wishes to make about the subject. In the following examples, the subjects
are in red; the main points made about those subjects are in highlighted
in yellow. Smoking | is harmful to one’s
health. | Alonzo | is an accounting
genius. | Prague | has an interesting
history. |
Modifier A word or group
of words that describes another word. The most common modifiers are
adjectives and adverbs. (12.0K)
Mood A form of a verb
that helps reveal the writer's intention or purpose. There are four
moods in English; (they are explained fully in Objective 22): The indicative
conveys information or asks a question: You forgot to lock the door. Will you lock the door?
The imperative
commands, requests, or gives instructions: Lock the door! Please lock the door.
Lock the door by turning the latch.
The subjunctive
expresses a desire, makes a suggestion, or explains something that is
contrary to fact: I wish I had locked the door. They suggested that he lock the door.
Had he locked the door, the thieves would not have stolen his money.
The conditional
answers questions such as "What would happen if"and
"What happens when?" If you lock the door, you won't be robbed. When people leave doors unlocked, they invite
thieves. Top
of DocumentN
Narration A method of developing
a paragraph or essay that recalls events or explains how something occurs.
Narratives arrange information in chronological order.
Noun A word that names
a person, place, or thing. The
tourists drove along a scenic highway in Wyoming.
Numeral A number expressed
as a mathematical symbol rather than as a word. For example, 10
is ten expressed as a numeral. Top of
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Object A noun or pronoun
that receives the action of a verb. A direct object is the person,
place, or thing to which the action of a verb is aimed or directed.
An indirect object is the person, place, or thing for whom (which)
or to whom (which) the action is done. | Indirect Object | | Direct Object | He
cooked | us | | spaghetti. | They
sent | us
| an | invitation. |
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Paragraph A unit of writing
made up of complete sentences, which focuses, supports, or develops
a main or central idea that is limited and well defined. Paragraphs
can be as short as one sentence, but they usually contain several sentences.
Parallelism The consistent
and logical use of the same grammatical construction—word, phrase or
clause--in a series.
Paraphrase Researched information
expressed in your own words. Generally, a paraphrase
is about as long as the original.
ParentheticalCitation The identification
of a source from which the writer has taken information in the form
of a direct quotation, a paraphrase, or a summary. A parenthetical citation
appears in parentheses [(/)] in the text.
Participle An adjective formed
from a verb. Participles end in -d, -ed, -t, -en, or -ing. paint
+ ed = painted speak + en = spoken
fall + ing = falling
lose + t = lost
Participial Phrase A phrase that begins
with a participle and describes a noun or pronoun. Thus, participial
phrases are adjectives. Held
as a prisoner of war, the pilot dreamed of going home.
Periodicals Publications such as newspapers, magazines,
and journals that are issued periodically (daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly,
semiannually, and so on).
Personal Pronoun A pronoun that
stands for a person or type of person. Personal pronouns can act as
subjects or objects. Subject: She
won the marathon that we entered
together last spring. Object: The committee awarded her
and us a research grant.
Persuasion The process by
which a writer convinces readers of the validity of a position and/or
succeeds in getting them to act on that position. The basis of all persuasion
is argument, but persuasion goes beyond argument by appealing to the
readers' emotions and self-interest.
Phrase A group of words
that does not contain a subject and verb. In order to make sense, a
phrase cannot stand alone. It must be attached to a main clause to be
part of a complete idea. Phrases can appear
anywhere in a sentence: During
the Civil War, brother fought against brother.
My sister, the oldest of four children, is a doctor.
She came to the party at my invitation.
Plural The number of a
noun, pronoun, or verb. Singular means one. Plural
means more than one. Most plural nouns end in -s.
Exceptions include words such as women, children, and deer.
Possessive The case of a noun
or pronoun that is used to indicate ownership. Do
you know whose car this is? Yes, it is Gene's
Mustang.
Oh, I thought it was his brother's car.
Prefix A short word or group of letters that, when
attached to the front of another word, gives that word a new meaning.
For example, premature and anti-democratic have far different
meanings than mature and democratic. Preposition A word that comes
before a noun or pronoun and shows how that word relates to other words
in the sentence. about | before | for | out | above | behind | from | over | across | below | in | through | after | between | inside | to | against | beyond | into | toward | along | by | near | under | among | despite | of | upon | at | during | on | with |
Prepositional
Phrase A phrase created
when a preposition is joined with a noun or pronoun. The
thief shoved the jewelry into his pocket and jumped from the window.
Prewriting The stage in the
writing process in which one gathers information about a subject.
Pronoun A word that replaces
a noun. A pronoun stands for a person, place, or thing. Learn the five
types of pronouns: personal, relative, demonstrative, indefinite,
and reflexive.
Proofreading The process by
which a writer checks for and corrects errors in spelling, mechanics,
and typing in the edited draft of a paper. This is usually the final
step in the writing process.
Purpose The objective a
writer intends to accomplish in a piece of writing. Top of
DocumentQTop of
DocumentRRedundant Saying the same
thing in different words; being repetitious and wordy. Redundant:
Doris told the doctor that her headaches
still persist. Correct: Doris told the doctor
that her headaches persist.
Reflexive Pronoun A pronoun that
ends in -self. It is used when the subject of a sentence does
something to itself.
Jeremy found himself whistling in the wind.
The horse injured itself when jumping the fence.
Regular Verb A verb that forms
its past tense by adding -d or -ed. All forms of regular
verbs in the past tense are identical. All forms of regular verbs in
the present tense are identical except the third-person singular:
Present | Singular | Plural | 1. I
call | 1. we
call | 2. you
call | 2. you
call | 3.
he/she calls | 3.
they call |
Past | Singular | Plural | 1. I
called | 1. we
called | 2. you
called | 2. you
called | 3.
he/she called | 3.
they called |
Relative Pronoun A pronoun that
describes a noun by connecting it to a dependent clause, which the relative
pronoun introduces and for which it acts as the subject. That and which
refer to animals, things, and ideas. Who and whom refer to people. Whose
can be used in all cases. The
Patels have found a house that they like.
They lived in Senegal, which is in Africa.
We met a reporter who had just returned from Bosnia.
The people whose party we went to were Cambodian. | Relative
Pronouns | | that | whichever | whom | whatever | who | whomever | which
| whoever | whose |
Researching A way to gather
information about a subject by taking notes from books, articles, pamphlets,
materials from the Internet, and other sources.
Revising The stage in the
writing process in which drafts of a paper are rewritten. Revising usually
involves adding and removing detail; adding, deleting, or moving sentences
and paragraphs; clarifying important points; and in general making major
changes in the content and structure of an essay. Top of
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Sentence A group of words
that contains a subject and a verb and that expresses a complete idea.
All complete sentences must have at least one main (independent) clause.
Sentence Fragment A group of words
that is punctuated as if it were a sentence, but 1) does not
contain a subject or verb; or 2) does not
express a complete idea. No subject: | Ran
the marathon. (Who ran in the marathon?) | No verb: | Running
in a marathon. (What about running in a marathon?). | Incomplete idea: | After
Jason ran in a marathon. (What happened after Jason ran
in a marathon?) |
Singular The number of a
noun, pronoun, or verb. Singular means one. Plural means more
than one. Verbs in the third
person singular present tense end in -s. Singular | Plural | 1. I
run | 1. We
run | 2. you
run | 2. You
run | 3. he/she/it/one runs | 3. They run |
Slang Informal language
that has a private meaning among a limited number of people. It is inappropriate
in formal writing.
Source A book, article,
interview, thesis, pamphlet, or other item that provides information
for a research project.
Subject A person, place,
or thing in a sentence that does the action or that the sentence describes.
Nouns or pronouns can act as subjects. All sentences have subjects. The
taxi turned the corner.
The taxi was yellow.
Subordinating
Conjunction Words or short
phrases that introduce subordinate (dependent) clauses and join them
to main (independent) clauses. There are several subordinating conjunctions,
including although, as if, because, even though, rather than, since,
though, unless, until, while, and whenever.
Subordinate (Dependent)
Clause A group of words
containing a subject and verb, which cannot stand alone and depends
for its meaning on a main (independent) clause. In a complete sentence,
it is always attached to a main (independent) clauses. After
Melissa sang, everyone applauded. Marion Jones, who became company president,
was born in my hometown.
Mozart had composed musical masterpieces before he reached his
teens.
Subordinate clauses
are also known as dependent clauses because they depend for their meaning
on main or independent clauses.
Summary Researched information
that is expressed in a condensed form. Generally, a summary
condenses one or more paragraphs into one or two sentences.
CAUTION: | When you write a summary,
make sure to put the information into your own words. Use quotation
marks around any words or phrases that you want to take exactly from
the source. |
Supporting Details Facts, statistics,
opinions, and other types of information used to develop or support
ideas in paragraphs and essays.
Syllable A unit within a
word made up of one or more letters that are pronounced together. Top of
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indicates. The tense of a verb reveals the time--past, present, or future--in
which the sentence or clause is set.
Thesis Statement The central idea
of an essay expressed in a complete sentence. When writing short essays
for college composition courses, students should limit thesis statements
to ideas that can be developed in less than 750 words.
Topic Sentence The central idea
of a paragraph expressed in a complete sentence. In general, topic sentences
used in student writing should be limited to ideas that can be developed
in less than a hundred words.
Transition A word, phrase,
and sometimes a whole sentence that makes a clear connection between
one idea and another. A transition is also called a connective. My
grandfather spoke five languages. However, he had never been to college.
Transitional Phrase A phrase that makes
a clear connection between one idea and another. I
enjoy summers in South Carolina. My father, on the other hand,
prefers to spend them in Maine.
Top of
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a paragraph or essay by which all of the information it contains relates
clearly to one central idea. Top of
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what a subject does (action) or that helps describe the subject
by linking it to an adjective.
The skyscraper rose into the clouds.
The skyscraper was impressive.
Top of
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more words than necessary to make your point clearly and emphatically. Top of
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