| glycogen | A carbohydrate made of multiple
units of glucose with a highly branched structure;
sometimes known as animal starch. It is
the storage form of glucose in humans and is
synthesized (and stored) in the liver and
muscles.
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| sugar | A simple carbohydrate with the chemical
composition (CH2O)n. Most sugars form a
ringed structure when in solution. The primary
sugar in the diet is sucrose, which is made up
of glucose and fructose.
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| starch | A carbohydrate made of multiple
units of glucose attached together in a form
the body can digest; also known as complex
carbohydrate.
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| fiber | Substances in plant foods that are not
digested by the processes that take place in
the stomach or small intestine. These add
bulk to feces. Fibers naturally found in foods
are also called dietary fiber.
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| photosynthesis | Process by which plants use
energy from the sun to synthesize energyyielding
compounds, such as glucose.
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| glucose | A six-carbon monosaccharide that
usually exists in a ring form; found as such in
blood, and in table sugar bonded to fructose;
also known as dextrose.
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| sucrose | Fructose bonded to glucose; table
sugar.
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| fructose | A six-carbon monosaccharide that
usually exists in a ring form; found in fruits
and honey; also known as fruit sugar.
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| galactose | A six-carbon monosaccharide that
usually exists in a ring form; closely related to
glucose.
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| lactose | Glucose bonded to galactose; also
known as milk sugar.
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| maltose | Glucose bonded to glucose.
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| fermentation | The conversion of
carbohydrates to alcohols, acids, and carbon
dioxide without the use of oxygen.
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| polysaccharides | Carbohydrates containing
many glucose units, from 10 to 1000 or more.
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| amylose | A digestible straight-chain type of
starch composed of glucose units.
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| amylopectin | A digestible branched-chain
type of starch composed of glucose units.
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| cellulose | An insoluble straight-chain
polysaccharide made of glucose molecules
that is undigestible.
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| hemicellulose | An insoluble fiber containing
xylose, galactose, glucose, and other
monosaccharides bonded together.
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| pectin | A soluble fiber containing chains of
galacturonic acid and other monosaccharides;
characteristically found between plant cell
walls.
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| gums | A soluble fiber containing chains of
galactose, glucuronic acid, and other
monosaccharides; characteristically found in
exudates from plant stems.
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| mucilages | A soluble fiber consisting of
chains of galactose, mannose, and other
monosaccharides; characteristically found in
seaweed.
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| lignins | An insoluble fiber made up of a
multiringed alcohol (noncarbohydrate)
structure.
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| dietary fiber | Fiber found in food.
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| whole grains | Grains containing the entire
seed of the plant, including the bran, germ,
and endosperm (starchy interior). Examples
are whole wheat and brown rice.
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| functional fiber | Fiber added to foods that
has shown to provide health benefits.
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| total fiber | Combination of dietary fiber and
functional fiber in a food. Also just called fiber.
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| amylase | Starch-digesting enzyme from the
salivary glands or pancreas.
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| maltase | An enzyme made by absorptive cells
of the small intestine; this enzyme digests
maltose to two glucoses.
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| sucrase | An enzyme made by absorptive cells
of the small intestine; this enzyme digests
sucrose to glucose and fructose.
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| lactase | An enzyme made by absorptive cells
of the small intestine; this enzyme digests
lactose to glucose and galactose.
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| ketone bodies | Products of incomplete
breakdown of fat containing three or four
carbons.
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| ketosis | The condition of having a high
concentration of ketone bodies and related
breakdown products in the bloodstream and
tissues.
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| insulin | A hormone produced by the
pancreas. Among other processes, insulin
increases the synthesis of glycogen in the liver
and the movement of glucose from the
bloodstream into body cells.
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| glucagon | A hormone made by the pancreas
that stimulates the breakdown of glycogen
in the liver into glucose; this ends up increasing
blood glucose. Glucagon also performs
other functions.
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| epinephrine | A hormone also known as
adrenaline; it is released by the adrenal
glands (located on each kidney) and various
nerve endings in the body. It acts to increase
glycogen breakdown in the liver, among
other functions.
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| hyperglycemia | High blood glucose, above
125 milligrams per 100 milliliters of blood.
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| hypoglycemia | Low blood glucose, below 40
to 50 milligrams per 100 milliliters of blood.
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| type 1 diabetes | A form of diabetes prone
to ketosis and that requires insulin therapy.
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| type 2 diabetes | A form of diabetes in
which ketosis is not commonly seen. Insulin
therapy can be used but is often not required.
This form of the disease is often associated
with obesity.
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| reactive hypoglycemia | Low blood glucose
that follows a meal high in simple sugars,
with corresponding symptoms of irritability,
headache, nervousness, sweating, and confusion;
also called postprandial hypoglycemia.
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| fasting hypoglycemia | Low blood glucose
that follows about a day of fasting.
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| diverticula | Pouches that protrude through
the exterior wall of the large intestine.
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| hemorrhoid | A pronounced swelling of a
large vein, particularly veins found in the anal
region.
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| diverticulosis | The condition of having many
diverticula in the large intestine.
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| diverticulitis | An inflammation of the diverticula
caused by acids produced by bacterial
metabolism inside the diverticula.
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| dental caries | Erosions in the surface of a
tooth caused by acids made by bacteria as
they metabolize sugars.
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| glycemic index (GI) | The blood glucose
response of a given food, compared to a
standard (typically, glucose or white bread).
Glycemic index is influenced by starch structure,
fiber content, food processing, physical
structure, and macronutrients in the meal,
such as fat.
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| glycemic load (GL) | The amount of carbohydrate
in a food multiplied by the glycemic
index of that carbohydrate. The result is then
divided by 100.
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| metabolic syndrome | A condition in which
the person has poor blood glucose regulation,
hypertension, increased blood triglycerides,
and other health problems. This condition is
usually accompanied by obesity, lack of physical
activity, and a diet high in refined carbohydrates.
Also called Syndrome X.
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| lactose maldigestion (primary and secondary) | Primary lactose maldigestion
occurs when production of the enzyme
lactase declines for no apparent reason.
Secondary lactose maldigestion occurs when
a specific cause, such as long-standing
diarrhea, results in a decline in lactase
production. When significant symptoms
develop after lactose intake, it is then called
lactose intolerance.
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