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Chapter Outline
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Following are the main learning objectives from the chapter:

Students should become familiar with the basic features of scientific reasoning and pseudoscience and understand the differences between them.
The Basic Pattern of Scientific Reasoning
  1. Students should recognize science as a method of inquiry that seeks to describe, explain, and predict occurrences in the physical world by means of careful observation and experiment. To adequately understand this definition, you should become familiar with the basic pattern of scientific reasoning which consist of . . .
    1. identifying the problem to be researched by means of observation or experiment;
    2. gathering relevant data, i.e. observational evidence concerning the problem under consideration;
    3. formulating hypotheses intended to guide or focus inquiry and experiment;
    4. testing hypotheses by considering their implications and then testing those implications with observational evidence;
      1. disconfirming or falsifying hypotheses with contrary evidence;
      2. supporting hypotheses with presumptive evidence;
      3. conducting a controlled study, including the use of one or all of the following:
        1. randomized experimental studies
        2. nonrandomized prospective studies
        3. nonrandomized retrospective studies
    5. distinguishing scientific assessments from popular methods for assessing claims such as,
      1. the method of personal experience;
      2. the method of anecdotal evidence;
      3. the method of paid testimonials;
      4. the method of ancient practice.
The Limitations of Science
  1. Students should be familiar with the limits of scientific inquiry including,
    1. resolving questions of meaning;
    2. resolving questions of value;
      1. you should be aware of the pitfalls of scientism, which asserts that science is the only reliable way of knowing.
How to Distinguish Science from Pseudoscience
  1. Students should learn to recognize characteristics of pseudoscience (unscientific thinking masked as scientific thinking) and distinguish them from characteristics of science. Pseudoscience generally . . .
    1. makes claims that are not testable;
    2. makes claims that are inconsistent with well-established scientific truths;
    3. explains away or ignores falsifying data;
    4. uses vague language;
      1. often relies on the use of cold readings;
      2. sometimes relies on fishing for details;
        1. uses multiple-out expressions;
        2. uses try-on statements;
    5. is not progressive;
    6. often involves no serious effort to conduct research.
  2. Contrary to pseudoscience, science . . .
    1. makes claims that are testable. However, student should be aware that. . .
      1. a scientific claim need not be directly testable;
      2. scientific claims need not be immediately testable;
      3. scientific claims must be testable in principle by empirical evidence;
        1. scientific claims must be verifiable in principle;
        2. scientific claims must be falsifiable in principle;
    2. is cumulative and progressive;
    3. is self-correcting in that it actively seeks to disprove its own hypotheses;
    4. expresses claims in clear, specific language;
    5. is a body of well-confirmed facts and is a method, a set of proven techniques, for advancing our understanding.
Two Case Studies in Pseudoscience and the Paranormal
  1. Students should grasp how the characteristics of pseudoscience are shared by astrology and the paranormal explanations of near-death experiences.
  2. Students should become familiar with the arguments and explanations used to support these examples and understand why these examples do not represent scientific thinking.







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