Although changes in the way we perceive and feel about ourselves occur throughout the life cycle, the study of identity development has been a prominent issue in the field of adolescent development in particular. The biological, cognitive, and social changes of adolescence provoke changes in the domain of identity.
Researchers and theorists have taken three approaches to the study of identity during adolescence: one emphasizes changes in the way individuals conceive of themselves, a second focuses on changes in the way individuals feel about themselves, and the third emphasizes changes in the degree to which individuals feel secure about who they are and where they are headed.
CHANGES IN SELF-CONCEPTIONS
Developmental changes occur in self-conceptions, they way we think about ourselves, between childhood and adolescence and over the course of the adolescent period. Self-conceptions, for example, become more abstract, more differentiated, and better organized. Individuals are more able to think of themselves in complicated and psychological terms. In addition, adolescents are able to distinguish between their actual and their imagined selves, and between their authentic and false selves. Interestingly, false-self behavior is most likely to occur in romantic situations and least likely to occur with close friends.
Dimensions of Personality in Adolescence: There are five critical personality dimensions in adolescence and adulthood, often referred to as the Big Five: Extroversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience. In general, these traits are influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors and are highly stable over time. For example, longitudinal studies show strong links between early temperament and adolescent personality.
CHANGES IN SELF-ESTEEM
Self-esteem, how one feels about oneself, appears to be a stable trait between childhood and adolescence, but research conducted by Simmons suggests that adolescents show the lowest levels of self-esteem, the highest levels of self-consciousness, and the shakiest self-image stability. According to Rosenberg, it is important to differentiate between barometric self-esteem (which accounts for the transitory nature of self-esteem) and baseline self-esteem (which accounts for the stability of self-esteem). Today most researchers believe that self-esteem is a multidimensional rather than global trait.
Sex, Class, and Ethnic Differences in Self-Esteem: During adolescence, some youngsters are more susceptible to changes in self-esteem than others. For example, early adolescent girls, especially white girls, are more vulnerable to disturbances in the self-image than any other group. Also, youth from less affluent families have lower self-esteem than their middle class peers. In addition, adolescents who attend schools in which they are the racial minority may suffer greater self-esteem problems than their peers who attend schools in which they are in the majority.
Antecedents and Consequences of High Self-Esteem: Adolescent self-esteem is enhanced by parental approval, peer support, and success in school.
THE ADOLESCENT IDENTITY CRISIS
Erikson's Theoretical Framework: An especially important perspective on the development of a sense of identity comes from the work of Erikson, who believes that individuals move through a series of eight psychosocial crises throughout the life cycle, and that each crisis builds upon the previous one.
Identity versus Identity Diffusion: According to Erikson, adolescents must resolve the identity versus identity diffusion crisis. The key to resolving this crisis is based on the adolescent's interactions with others.
The Social Context of Identity Development: The social context in which the adolescent attempts to establish a sense of identity varies from culture to culture, among different subcultures within the same society, and over different historical eras. Due to the increased options available to the American adolescent, the likelihood of a prolonged identity crisis is probably greater today than it has ever been.
Erikson argues that adolescents need to explore, to experiment, and to choose among options for the future. He called this period the psychosocial moratorium.
Problems in Identity Development: Some adolescents have difficulty in successfully resolving the identity crisis. Among the three most common problems described by Erikson are identity diffusion (incomplete sense of self), identity foreclosure (bypass the psychosocial moratorium and establish an identity), and negative identity (an undesirable identity formation).
RESEARCH ON IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
Determining an Adolescent's Identity Status: Research by Marcia, which focuses on identity exploration in three specific areas (occupation, ideology, and inter-personal relations), has generally supported Erikson's theoretical perspective. According to Marcia, individuals' identities can be assessed on two dimensions: (1) the degree to which they have made a commitment and (2) the degree to which they engaged in a sustained search. Four identity categories have been established: identity achieved, moratorium, identity foreclosed, and identity diffusion.
Studying Identity Development over Time: Most studies indicate, however, that the major developments in this domain occur in late adolescence and young adulthood, rather than earlier during the adolescent decade. A coherent sense of identity generally does not occur much before age 18. Research indicates that the freshman year in college may play a significant role in identity development, however some research suggests it may prolong the psychosocial moratorium.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ETHNIC IDENTITY
The Process of Ethnic Identity Development: In recent years, researchers have turned their attention to the study of ethnic identity. Although adolescents from ethnic minorities benefit from having a strong ethnic identity, there are a variety of ways in which this can be expressed. For example, parents who teach their children about ethnic socialization (e.g., understanding one's culture, getting along with society, and dealing with racism) may speed up the process of identity development.
Alternative Orientations to Ethnic Identity: According to Phinney, minority youth have four possibilities open to them for dealing with their ethnicity: (1) assimilation, (2) marginality, (3) biculturalism, and (4) separation. Minority youth who select, depending on the situation, between the norms of two cultures (a process called code switching) may have an easier time adapting.
GENDER-ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Gender-Role Socialization During Adolescence: An important aspect of adolescent identity is the development of gender identity. The gender intensification hypothesis suggests that adolescents are pressured to behave in stereotypic gender roles.
Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny: In general, among both males and females, many traits traditionally labeled as masculine are associated with better adjustment and greater peer acceptance during adolescence (but not during childhood or young adulthood). As a result, androgynous females and masculine males report higher levels of self-esteem than their do their peers.
