Chapter Summary

Throughout this book we’ve studied a variety of serious environmental problems. Science can help us understand why these problems occur and what we might do about them, but for many complex issues—sometimes called “wicked” problems because they have no single, clear answer—we can’t wait until all possible evidence is gathered. We must make reasoned judgments based on the best available evidence. Learning from ecological systems, we see that some of the main goals for environmental policy and planning might be the precautionary principle and adaptive management.

Environmental education and literacy are important if we are to manage our natural resources for long-term sustainability. Citizen-science projects give hands-on, practical knowledge to participants and at the same time can contribute to solving real scientific problems. There are many opportunities for environmental careers in both natural and social sciences.

Although “policy” can have multiple meanings, in this chapter, environmental policy is taken to mean both public opinion as well as official rules and regulations concerning our environment. The policy cycle describes the steps by which problems are identified and defined, and solutions are proposed, debated, enacted into law, and monitored.

The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) forms the cornerstone of both environmental policy and law in the United States. One of its most important provisions is the requirement of Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) for all major federal projects and programs. Laws are rules established through legislation (statutes), judicial decisions (case law), or executive decisions (administrative law). Lobbying, litigation, and administrative interventions have been among environmentalists’ most effective ways to shape policy and protect the environment. Individuals can play important roles in these processes, but often, it is more effective to work collectively. There are many different environmental organizations, and their philosophies and tactics range from quiet, behind-the-scene negotiations with decision makers to public protests and radical activism. Everyone should be able to find a group that fits their outlook.

Although many international treaties and conventions have been passed to protect our global environment, most are vague or toothless. Some innovative measures have been devised to compel compliance. Some alternatives to adversarial litigation include arbitration, mediation, and community-based planning. These techniques are useful in complex, unpredictable, multistakeholder, multivalue issues.