| abnormal behavior | Behavior that causes people to experience distress (hardship) and prevents them from functioning in their daily lives (Module 33)
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| absolute threshold | The smallest intensity (force) of a stimulus (see glossary definition) that must be present for the stimulus to be detected (Module 8)
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| action potential | An electric nerve impulse (stimulation) that travels through a neuron (nerve cell) when it is set off by a "trigger," changing the neuron's charge from negative to positive (Module 5)
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| activation-synthesis theory | J. Allan Hobson's theory that the brain produces random (no pattern) electrical energy during REM (rapid eye movement) sleep that stimulates memories lodged in various portions of the brain (Module 12)
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| activity theory of aging | A theory (proposition or idea) that suggests that the elderly who are more successful while aging are those who maintain the interests and activities they had during middle age (Module 28)
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| adaptation | An adjustment in sensory capacity (space or room) after prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli (stimulus) (Module 8)
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| addictive drugs | Drugs that produce a biological or psychological dependence (reliance) in the user so that withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that, in some cases, may be nearly irresistible (Module 14)
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| adolescence | The developmental (growth) stage between childhood and adulthood (Module 27)
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| age of viability | The point at which a fetus (developing human— see glossary definition) can survive if born prematurely (early) (Module 25)
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| aggression | The intentional (on purpose) injury of, or harm to, another person (Module 42)
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| algorithm | A rule that, if applied appropriately (properly), guarantees a solution to a problem (Module 20)
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| all-or-none law | The rule that neurons (nerve cells) are either on or off (Module 5)
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| altruism | Helping behavior that is beneficial to others but clearly requires self-sacrifice (Module 42)
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| Alzheimer's disease | A progressive (advancing) brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible (not reversible) decline in cognitive (thinking) abilities (Module 28)
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| anal stage | According to Sigmund Freud, a stage from age 12 to 18 months to 3 years of age, in which a child's pleasure is centered on the anus (Module 29)
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| androgens | Male sex hormones secreted by the testes (testicles) (Module 23)
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| anorexia nervosa | A severe eating disorder in which people may refuse to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance—which can become skeleton-like—are unusual (Module 23)
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| antianxiety drugs | Drugs that reduce the level of anxiety (unease, nervousness) a person experiences, essentially (basically) by reducing excitability (easily stimulated) and increasing feelings of well-being (Module 38)
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| antidepressant drugs | Medications that improve a severely depressed patient's mood and feeling of well-being (Module 38)
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| antipsychotic drugs | Drugs that temporarily reduce psychotic (loss of reality) symptoms such as agitation, hallucinations (false perception), and delusions (false belief) (Module 38)
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| antisocial personality disorder | A disorder (illness) in which individuals show no regard for the moral and ethical rules of society or the rights of others (Module 34)
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| anxiety disorder | The occurrence (happening) of anxiety (unease, nervousness) without an obvious external cause, affecting daily functioning (Module 34)
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| archetypes | According to Carl Jung, universal symbolic representations (images) of a particular person, object, or experience (such as good and evil) (Module 29)
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| archival research | Research in which existing data (information), such as census documents, college records, and newspaper clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis (Module 3)
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| arousal approaches to motivation | The belief that we try to maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity, increasing or reducing them as necessary (Module 22)
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| association areas | One of the major regions of the cerebral cortex (see glossary definition); the site of the higher mental processes, such as thought, language, memory, and speech (Module 7)
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| assumed-similarity bias | The tendency to think of people as being similar to oneself, even when meeting them for the first time (Module 39)
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| attachment | The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual (Module 26)
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| attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | A disorder (illness) marked by inattention, impulsiveness (acting on urges), a low tolerance for frustration, and a great deal of inappropriate (improper) activity (Module 34)
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| attitudes | Evaluations of a particular person, behavior, belief, or concept (Module 39)
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| attribution theory | The theory of personality (see glossary definition) that seeks to explain how we decide, on the basis of samples of an individual's behavior, what the specific causes of that person's behavior are (Module 39)
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| authoritarian parents | Parents who are rigid and punitive (disciplinary) and value unquestioning obedience from their children (Module 26)
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| authoritative parents | Parents who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them (Module 26)
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| autism | A severe developmental disability that impairs children's ability to communicate and relate to others (Module 34)
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| autobiographical memories | Our recollections of circumstances and episodes (events) from our own lives (Module 19)
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| autonomic division | The part of the peripheral nervous system (see glossary definition) that controls involuntary movement of the heart, glands, lungs, and other organs (Module 6)
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| autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage | The period which, according to Erik Erikson, toddlers (ages 11/2 to 3 years) develop independence and autonomy (self-rule) if exploration and freedom are encouraged, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected (Module 26)
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| aversive conditioning | A form of therapy that reduces the frequency of undesired behavior by pairing an aversive (disliked), unpleasant stimulus (see glossary definition) with undesired behavior (Module 36)
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| axon | The part of the neuron (nerve cell) that carries messages destined for other neurons (Module 5)
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| babble | Meaningless speechlike sounds made by children from around the age of 3 months through 1 year (Module 21)
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| background stressors ("daily hassles") | Everyday annoyances, such as being stuck in traffic, that cause minor irritations and may have long-term ill effects if they continue or are compounded by other stressful events (Module 43)
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| basilar membrane | A vibrating structure that runs through the center of the cochlea (see glossary definition), dividing it into an upper chamber and a lower chamber and containing sense receptors (receivers) for sound (Module 10)
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| behavior modification | A formalized (formal) technique for promoting the frequency (occurrence) of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence (rate) of unwanted ones (Module 16)
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| behavioral assessment | Direct measures of an individual's behavior used to describe personality (see glossary definition) characteristics (Module 31)
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| behavioral genetics | The study of the effects of heredity (inherited) on behavior (Module 6)
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| behavioral neuroscientists (or biopsychologists) | Psychologists who specialize in considering the ways in which the biological structures and functions of the body affect behavior (Module 5)
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| behavioral perspective | The approach that suggests that observable, measurable behavior should be the focus of study (Module 2)
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| behavioral perspective on psychological disorders | The perspective (view) that looks at the behavior itself as the problem (Module 33)
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| behavioral treatment approaches | Treatment approaches that build on the basic processes of learning, such as reinforcement and extinction (see glossary definitions), and assume that normal and abnormal (unusual) behavior are both learned (Module 36)
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| biofeedback | A procedure in which a person learns to control through conscious thought internal physiological processes such as blood pressure, heart and respiration rate, skin temperature, sweating, and the constriction (tightening) of particular muscles (Module 7)
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| biological and evolutionary approaches to personality | Theories that suggest that important components (parts) of personality (see glossary definition) are inherited (Module 30)
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| biomedical therapy | Therapy that relies on drugs and other medical procedures to improve psychological functioning (Module 36)
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| biopsychologists | See behavioral neuroscientists (Module 5)
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| bipolar disorder | A disorder (illness) in which a person alternates between periods of euphoric (elated, joyous) feelings of mania (excited, intense) and periods of depression (Module 34)
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| bisexuals | Persons who are sexually attracted to people of the same sex and the other sex (Module 23)
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| borderline personality disorder | A disorder (illness) in which individuals have difficulty developing a secure sense of who they are (Module 34)
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| bottom-up processing | Perception that consists of the progression of recognizing and processing information from individual components (parts) of a stimuli (stimulus) and moving to the perception (see glossary definition) of the whole (Module 11)
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| bulimia | An eating disorder (illness) in which a person binges (gorges) on large quantities of food, followed by efforts to purge the food through vomiting or other means (Module 23)
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| Cannon-Bard theory of emotion | The belief that both physiological arousal and emotional experience are produced simultaneously (at the same time) by the same nerve stimulus (see glossary definition) (Module 24)
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| case study | An in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people (Module 3)
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| cataclysmic events | Strong stressors that occur suddenly, affecting many people at once (e.g., natural disasters) (Module 43)
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| catharsis | The process of discharging built-up aggressive (hostile) energy (Module 42)
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| central core | The "old brain," which controls basic functions such as eating and sleeping and is common to all vertebrates (Module 7)
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| central nervous system (CNS) | The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord (Module 6)
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| central route processing | Message interpretation characterized by thoughtful consideration of the issues and arguments used to persuade (Module 39)
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| central traits | The major traits considered in forming impressions of others (Module 39)
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| cerebellum (ser uh BELL um) | The part of the brain that controls bodily balance (Module 7)
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| cerebral cortex | The "new brain," responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain; contains four lobes (Module 7)
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| chromosomes | Rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary (inherited) information (Module 25)
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| chunk | A meaningful grouping of stimuli (stimulus) that can be stored as a unit in short-term memory (Module 18)
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| circadian rhythms | Biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle (Module 12)
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| classical conditioning | A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus (see glossary definition) comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response (Module 15)
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| cochlea (KOKE lee uh) | A coiled tube in the ear filled with fluid that vibrates in response to sound (Module 10)
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| cognitive approaches to motivation | Theories suggesting that motivation is a product of people's thoughts, expectations, and goals—their cognitions (Module 22)
|
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| cognitive-behavioral approach | A treatment approach that incorporates basic principles of learning to change the way people think (Module 36)
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| cognitive development | The process by which a child's understanding of the world changes as a function (role) of age and experience (Module 26)
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| cognitive dissonance | The conflict that occurs when a person holds two contradictory (different) attitudes or thoughts (referred to as cognitions) (Module 39)
|
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| cognitive learning theory | An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning (Module 17)
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| cognitive perspective | The approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world (Module 2)
|
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| cognitive perspective on psychological disorders | The perspective (view) that suggests that people's thoughts and beliefs are a central component (part) of abnormal (irregular) behavior (Module 33)
|
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| cognitive psychology | The branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, judging, and decision making (Module 18)
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| cognitive treatment approaches | Treatment approaches that teach people to think in more adaptive (different) ways by changing their dysfunctional (improper) cognitions (thoughts) about the world and themselves (Module 36)
|
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|
| collective unconscious | According to Carl Jung, a common set of ideas, feelings, images, and symbols that we inherit from our ancestors, the whole human race, and even nonhuman ancestors from the distant past (Module 29)
|
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| community psychology | A branch of psychology that focuses on the prevention and minimization (making smaller) of psychological disorders (illnesses) in the community (Module 38)
|
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| companionate love | The strong affection we have for those with whom our lives are deeply involved (Module 42)
|
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| compliance | Behavior that occurs in response to direct social pressure (Module 40)
|
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| compulsion | An irresistible urge to carry out some act that seems strange or unreasonable (Module 34)
|
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| concepts | Categorizations (organization) of objects, events, or people that share common properties (Module 20)
|
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| concrete operational stage | According to Jean Piaget, the period from 7 to 12 years of age that is characterized by logical (rational) thought and a loss of egocentrism (selfishness) (Module 26)
|
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| conditioned response (CR) | A response (reaction) that, after conditioning, follows a previously (before) neutral stimulus (see glossary definition) (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell) (Module 15)
|
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| conditioned stimulus (CS) | A once-neutral stimulus (see glossary definition) that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus (Module 15)
|
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| cones | Cone-shaped, light-sensitive receptor (receiving) cells in the retina (see glossary definition) that are responsible for sharp focus and color perception (see glossary definition), particularly in bright light (Module 9)
|
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| conformity | A change in behavior or attitudes brought about by a desire to follow the beliefs or standards of other people (Module 40)
|
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| consciousness | The awareness of sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment (Module 12)
|
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| constructive processes | Processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events (Module 19)
|
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| continuous reinforcement schedule | Reinforcing (see glossary definition) of a behavior every time it occurs (Module 16)
|
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| control group | A group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment (Module 3)
|
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|
| conversion disorder | A major somatoform disorder (see glossary definition) that involves an actual physical disturbance (trouble), such as the inability to use a sensory (sense) organ or the complete or partial inability to move an arm or a leg (Module 34)
|
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| coping | The efforts to control, reduce, or learn to tolerate (handle) the threats that lead to stress (Module 43)
|
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| correlational research | Research in which the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated, or "correlated" (Module 3)
|
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| cross-sectional research | A research method that compares people of different ages at the same point in time (Module 25)
|
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| crystallized intelligence | The accumulation (gathering) of information, skills, and strategies that are learned through experience and can be applied in problem-solving situations (Module 32)
|
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| cue-dependent forgetting | Forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient (not enough) retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory (Module 19)
|
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| culture-fair IQ test | A test that does not discriminate (show favoritism) against the members of any minority group (Module 32)
|
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| daily hassles | See background stressors (Module 43)
|
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| decay | The loss of information in memory through its nonuse (Module 19)
|
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| declarative memory | Memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and the like (Module 18)
|
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|
|
| defense mechanisms | In Freudian theory, unconscious (see glossary definition) strategies (plans or ideas) that people use to reduce anxiety (unease, nervousness) by concealing (hide or mask) the source of the anxiety from themselves and others (Module 29)
|
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|
| deinstitutionalization | The transfer of former mental patients from institutions (place of care, hospital) to the community (Module 38)
|
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| dendrites | A cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron (nerve cell) that receive messages from other neurons (Module 5)
|
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| dependent variable | The variable (see glossary definition) that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes caused by the experimenter's manipulation (handling) of the independent variable (Module 3)
|
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| depressants | Drugs that slow down the nervous system (Module 14)
|
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|
| depth perception | The ability to view the world in three dimensions (lifelike aspects) and to perceive distance (Module 11)
|
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| descriptive research | An approach to research designed to systematically (scientifically) investigate a person, group, or patterns of behavior (Module 3)
|
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|
| determinism | The idea that people's behavior is produced primarily (mostly) by factors outside of their willful control (Module 2)
|
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|
| developmental psychology | The branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life (Module 25)
|
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|
|
| Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Menta Disorders ®, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) | A system, devised (created) by the American Psychiatric Association, used by most professionals to diagnose and classify abnormal (unusual) behavior (Module 33)
|
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|
| dialectical behavior therapy | A form of treatment in which the focus is on getting people to accept who they are, regardless of whether it matches their ideal (Module 36)
|
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|
| difference threshold (just noticeable difference) | The smallest level of added or reduced stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred (Module 8)
|
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|
| diffusion of responsibility | The tendency for people to feel that responsibility for acting is shared, or diffused (spread), among those present (Module 42)
|
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| discrimination | Behavior directed toward individuals on the basis of their membership in a particular group (Module 41)
|
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|
|
| disengagement theory of aging | A theory that suggests that aging produces a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels (Module 28)
|
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|
|
| dispositional causes (of behavior) | Perceived (seeming) causes of behavior that are based on internal traits or personality (see glossary definition) factors (Module 39)
|
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|
|
| dissociative amnesia | A disorder (illness) in which a significant (major), selective memory loss occurs (Module 34)
|
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|
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| dissociative disorders | Psychological dysfunctions (disturbance) characterized by the separation of different facets of a person's personality that are normally integrated (combined) (Module 34)
|
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| dissociative fugue | A form of amnesia in which the individual leaves home and sometimes assumes a new identity (Module 34)
|
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|
|
| dissociative identity disorder (DID) | A disorder (illness) in which a person displays (shows) characteristics (features) of two or more distinct (separate) personalities; also called multiple personality disorder (Module 34)
|
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| double standard | The view that premarital sex is permissible (acceptable) for males but not for females (Module 23)
|
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| dreams-for-survival theory | The theory suggesting that dreams permit information that is critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed (rethought) during sleep (Module 12)
|
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|
| drive | Motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes (makes active) behavior to fulfill a need (Module 22)
|
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|
|
| drive-reduction approaches to motivation | Theories suggesting that a lack of a basic biological requirement such as water produces a drive to obtain that requirement (in this case, the thirst drive) (Module 22)
|
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|
|
| drug therapy | Control of psychological disorders (illness) through the use of drugs (Module 38)
|
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| eardrum | The part of the ear that vibrates when sound hits it (Module 10)
|
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|
| ego | The part of the personality (see glossary definition) that provides a buffer (cushion) between the id and the outside world (Module 29)
|
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|
| egocentric thought | A way of thinking in which a child views the world entirely from his or her own perspective (point of view) (Module 26)
|
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|
| ego-integrity-versus-despair stage | According to Erik Erikson, a period from late adulthood until death during which we review life's accomplishments and failures (Module 27)
|
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|
|
| electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) | A procedure used in the treatment of severe depression in which an electric current of 70 to 150 volts is briefly administered (applied) to a patient's head (Module 38)
|
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| embryo | A developed zygote (see glossary definition) that has a heart, a brain, and other organs (Module 25)
|
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| emotional intelligence | The set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions (Module 32)
|
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| emotions | Feelings that generally have both physiological (physical) and cognitive (thinking, processing) elements and that influence behavior (Module 24)
|
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| endocrine system | A chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream (Module 6)
|
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| episodic memory | Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context (Module 18)
|
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| estrogens | Class of female sex hormones (Module 23)
|
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|
|
| evolutionary psychology | The branch of psychology that seeks to identify behavior patterns that are a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors (Module 6)
|
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|
|
| excitatory messages | Chemical messages that make it more likely that a receiving neuron (nerve cell) will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon (see glossary definition) (Module 5)
|
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|
|
| experiment | The investigation of the relationship between two (or more) variables (see glossary definition) by deliberately (on purpose) producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation (Module 3)
|
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|
|
| experimental bias | Factors that distort (alter) how the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment (Module 4)
|
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|
|
| experimental group | Any group participating in an experiment (see glossary definition) that receives a treatment (Module 3)
|
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|
|
| experimental manipulation | The change that an experimenter deliberately (on purpose) produces in a situation (Module 3)
|
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|
| explicit memory | Intentional or conscious recollection (remembering) of information (Module 19)
|
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|
|
| exposure | A behavioral treatment for anxiety (unease, nervousness) in which people are confronted, either suddenly or gradually, with a stimulus (see glossary definition) that they fear (Module 36)
|
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|
|
| extinction | A basic phenomenon (event, incident) of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response (see glossary definition) decreases in frequency and eventually disappears (Module 15)
|
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| extramarital sex | Sexual activity between a married person and someone who is not his or her spouse (Module 23)
|
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|
| facial-affect program | Activation of a set of nerve impulses that make the face display the appropriate expression (Module 24)
|
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|
|
| facial-feedback hypothesis | The hypothesis that facial expressions not only reflect emotional experience but also help determine how people experience and label emotions (Module 24)
|
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|
|
| familial retardation | Mental retardation in which no apparent biological defect exists, but there is a history of retardation in the family (Module 32)
|
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|
| family therapy | An approach that focuses on the family and its dynamics (relationships) (Module 37)
|
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|
| feature detection | The activation (turning on) of neurons (nerve cells) in the cortex by visual stimuli (stimulus) of specific shapes or patterns (Module 9)
|
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|
|
| fetal alcohol syndrome | The most common cause of mental retardation in newborns, occurring (happening) when the mother uses alcohol during pregnancy (Module 32)
|
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| fetus | A developing individual, from eight weeks after conception until birth (Module 25)
|
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| fixations | Conflicts or concerns that persist (continue) beyond the developmental period in which they first occur (Module 29)
|
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|
|
| fixed-interval schedule | A schedule that provides reinforcement (see glossary definition) for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low (Module 16)
|
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|
| fixed-ratio schedule | A schedule by which reinforcement (see glossary definition) is given only after a specific number of responses are made (Module 16)
|
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|
|
| flashbulb memories | Memories centered on a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event (Module 19)
|
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|
|
| fluid intelligence | Intelligence that reflects information processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory (Module 32)
|
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|
|
| formal operational stage | According to Jean Piaget, the period from age 12 to adulthood that is characterized by abstract thought (Module 26)
|
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|
|
| free will | The idea that behavior is caused primarily (mainly) by choices that are made freely by the individual (Module 2)
|
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|
| functional fixedness | The tendency (trend) to think of an object only in terms of its typical use (Module 20)
|
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|
|
| functionalism | An early approach to psychology that concentrated on what the mind does—the functions of mental activity—and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt (adjust) to their environments (Module 2)
|
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|
|
| fundamental attribution error | A tendency to over attribute others' behavior to dispositional (personality, system) causes and the corresponding minimization of the importance of situational causes (Module 39)
|
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|
|
| g or g-factor | The single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence (Module 32)
|
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|
|
| gate-control theory of pain | The theory that particular nerve receptors (receivers) lead to specific areas of the brain related to pain (Module 10)
|
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|
|
| general adaptation syndrome (GAS) | A theory developed by Hans Selye that suggests that a person's response to a stressor (something that causes stress) consists of three stages: alarm and mobilization, resistance, and exhaustion (Module 43)
|
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|
|
| generalized anxiety disorder | The experience of longterm, persistent (continuing) anxiety (unease, nervousness) and worry (Module 34)
|
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|
|
| generativity-versus-stagnation stage | According to Erik Erikson, a period in middle adulthood during which we take stock of our contributions to family and society (Module 27)
|
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|
|
| genes | The parts of the chromosomes (see glossary definition) through which genetic information is transmitted (Module 25)
|
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|
|
| genetic preprogramming theories of aging | Theories that suggest that human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction, and that after a certain time they are no longer able to divide (Module 28)
|
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|
| genital stage | According to Sigmund Freud, the period from puberty until death, marked by mature sexual behavior (i.e., sexual intercourse) (Module 29)
|
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| genitals | The male and female sex organs (Module 23)
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| gestalt (geh SHTALLT) laws of organization | A series of principles that describe how we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes (Module 11)
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| gestalt psychology | An approach to psychology that focuses on the organization of perception (see glossary definition) and thinking in a "whole" sense rather than on the individual elements of perception (Module 2)
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| group therapy | Therapy in which people meet with a therapist to discuss problems with a group (Module 37)
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| habituation | The decrease in response to a stimulus (see glossary definition) that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus (Module 15)
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| hair cells | Tiny cells covering the basilar membrane (part of the inner ear) that, when bent by vibrations entering the cochlea (see glossary definition), transmit neural messages to the brain (Module 10)
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| hallucinogen | A drug that is capable of producing hallucinations, or changes in the perceptual process (Module 14)
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| halo effect | A phenomenon (event) in which an initial understanding that a person has positive traits is used to infer other uniformly positive characteristics (Module 39)
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| hemispheres | Symmetrical (balanced, proportioned) left and right halves of the brain that control the side of the body opposite to their location (Module 7)
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| heritability | A measure of the degree to which a characteristic (defined feature) is related to genetic, inherited factors (Module 32)
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| heterosexuality | Sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex (Module 23)
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| heuristic | A cognitive (thought process) shortcut that may lead to a solution (Module 20)
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| homeostasis | The body's tendency to maintain a steady internal state (Module 22)
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| homosexuals | Persons who are sexually attracted to members of their own sex (Module 23)
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| hormones | Chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or growth of the body (Module 6)
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| humanistic approaches to personality | Theories that emphasize people's innate goodness and desire to achieve higher levels of functioning (performance) (Module 30)
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| humanistic perspective | The approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior (Module 2)
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| humanistic perspective on psychological disorders | The perspective (view) that emphasizes the responsibility people have for their own behavior, even when such behavior is abnormal (unusual) (Module 33)
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| humanistic therapy | Therapy in which the underlying rationale (foundation) is that people have control of their behavior, can make choices about their lives, and are essentially (basically) responsible for solving their own problems (Module 37)
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| hypnosis | A trancelike state of heightened susceptibility (openness) to the suggestions of others (Module 13)
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| hypochondriasis | A disorder (illness) in which people have a constant fear of illness and a preoccupation (concern) with their health (Module 34)
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| hypothalamus | A tiny part of the brain, located below the thalamus (see glossary definition), that maintains homeostasis (balance) and produces and regulates vital (essential) behavior, such as eating, drinking, and sexual behavior (Module 7)
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| hypothesis | A prediction, stemming from a theory (supposition), stated in way that allows it to be tested (Module 3)
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| id | The raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality (see glossary definition) whose sole purpose is to reduce tension created by primitive (ancient) drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational (unreasonable) impulses (Module 29)
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| identical twins | Twins who are exactly the same genetically (inherited) (Module 25)
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| identification | The process of wanting to be like another person as much as possible, imitating that person's behavior and adopting (take on) similar beliefs and values (Module 29)
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| identity | The distinguishing (unique) character of the individual: who each of us is, what our roles are, and what we are capable of (Module 27)
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| identity-versus-role-confusion stage | According to Erik Erikson, a time in adolescence of major testing to determine one's unique qualities (Module 27)
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| implicit memory | Memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent (following) performance and behavior (Module 19)
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| incentive approaches to motivation | Theories suggesting that motivation (see glossary definition) stems (comes) from the desire to obtain valued external goals, or incentives (Module 22)
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| independent variable | The variable that is manipulated (controlled) by an experimenter (Module 3)
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| industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology | The branch of psychology focusing on work and job-related issues, including worker motivation, satisfaction, safety, and productivity (Module 40)
|
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| industry-versus-inferiority stage | According to Erik Erikson, the last stage of childhood, during which children age 6 to 12 years may develop positive social interactions (exchanges) with others or may feel inadequate (not good enough, lacking) and become less sociable (friendly) (Module 26)
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| inferiority complex | According to Alfred Adler, a problem affecting (influencing) adults who have not been able to overcome the feelings of inferiority (not good enough) that they developed as children, when they were small and limited in their knowledge about the world (Module 29)
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| information processing | The way in which people take in, use, and store information (Module 26)
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| informed consent | A document signed by participants affirming (confirming) that they have been told the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve (Module 4)
|
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| inhibitory messages | Chemical messages that prevent or decrease the likelihood that a receiving neuron (nerve cell) will fire (Module 5)
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| initiative-versus-guilt stage | According to Erik Erikson, the period during which children ages 3 to 6 years experience conflict between independence (self-rule) of action and the sometimes negative results of that action (Module 26)
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| instincts | Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically (naturally) determined (fixed, inborn) rather than learned (Module 22)
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| intellectual disability | Another term for mental retardation (Module 32)
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| intellectually gifted | The 2 to 4 percent of the population who have IQ scores greater than 130 (Module 32)
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| intelligence | The capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges (Module 32)
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| intelligence quotient (IQ) | A score that takes into account an individual's mental and chronological (in order, physical age) ages (Module 32)
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| intelligence tests | Tests devised to quantify (measure) a person's level of intelligence (Module 32)
|
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| interactionist approach to language development | The view that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language (Module 21)
|
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| interference | The phenomenon (event) by which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information (Module 19)
|
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| interneurons | Neurons (nerve cells) that connect sensory (sensations) and motor neurons, carrying messages between the two (Module 6)
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| interpersonal attraction (or close relationship) | Positive feelings for others; liking and loving (Module 42)
|
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| interpersonal therapy (IPT) | Short-term therapy that focuses on the context (situation) of current social relationships (Module 37)
|
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| intimacy-versus-isolation stage | According to Erik Erikson, a period during early adulthood that focuses on developing close relationships (Module 27)
|
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| introspection | A procedure used to study the structure of the mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus (see glossary definition) (Module 2)
|
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| James-Lange theory of emotion | The belief that emotional experience is a reaction to bodily events occurring as a result of an external situation ("I feel sad because I am crying") (Module 24)
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| just noticeable difference | See difference threshold (Module 8)
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| language | The communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules (Module 21)
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| language-acquisition device | A neural (nerve) system of the brain hypothesized (see hypothesis) by Noam Chomsky to permit understanding of language (Module 21)
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| latency period | According to Sigmund Freud, the period between the phallic stage and puberty during which children's sexual concerns are temporarily put aside (Module 29)
|
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| latent content of dreams | According to Sigmund Freud, the "disguised" meaning of dreams, hidden by more obvious subjects (Module 12)
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| latent learning | Learning in which a new behavior is acquired (obtained) but is not demonstrated until some incentive (motivation) is provided for displaying it (Module 17)
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| lateralization | The dominance (control) of one hemisphere (side— see hemispheres) of the brain in specific functions, such as language (Module 7)
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| learned helplessness | A state in which people conclude that unpleasant or aversive stimuli (stimulus) cannot be controlled—a view of the world that becomes so ingrained (fixed) that they cease trying to remedy the aversive (unpleasant) circumstances, even if they actually can exert some influence (Module 43)
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| learning | A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience (Module 15)
|
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| learning-theory approach to language development | The theory suggesting that language acquisition (gaining) follows the principles of reinforcement (see glossary definitions) and conditioning (Module 21)
|
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| levels-of-processing theory | The theory of memory that emphasizes (stresses) the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed (Module 19)
|
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| life review | The process by which people examine and evaluate their lives (Module 28)
|
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| limbic system | The part of the brain that controls eating, aggression (hostility), and reproduction (Module 7)
|
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| linguistic-relativity hypothesis | The notion that language shapes and may determine the way people in a particular culture perceive (see) and understand the world (Module 21)
|
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| lobes | The four major sections of the cerebral cortex (see glossary definition): frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital (Module 7)
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| longitudinal research | A research method that investigates behavior as participants age (Module 25)
|
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| long-term memory | Memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve (Module 18)
|
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| major depression | A severe form of depression that interferes with concentration (focus), decision making, and sociability (interaction with others) (Module 34)
|
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| mania | An extended state of intense (strong), wild elation (Module 34)
|
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| manifest content of dreams | According to Sigmund Freud, the apparent story line of dreams (Module 12)
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| masturbation | Sexual self-stimulation (Module 23)
|
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| means-ends analysis | Repeated testing for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists (Module 20)
|
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|
| medical perspective on psychological disorders | The perspective (view) that suggests that when an individual displays symptoms of abnormal (unusual) behavior, the root cause will be found in a physical examination of the individual, which may reveal a hormonal imbalance, a chemical deficiency (lacking), or a brain injury (Module 33)
|
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| meditation | A learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness (Module 13)
|
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| memory | The process by which we encode (program), store, and retrieve (call back) information (Module 18)
|
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| menopause | The period during which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile (Module 28)
|
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| mental age | The average age of individuals who achieve a particular level of performance on a test (Module 32)
|
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| mental images | Representations (visual pictures) in the mind that resemble the object or event being represented (Module 20)
|
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| mental retardation | A condition characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual (see concept), social, and practical adaptive (adjustable) skills (Module 32)
|
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| mental set | The tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist (keep on) (Module 20)
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| metabolism | The rate at which food is converted (changed) to energy and expended (used) by the body (Module 23)
|
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| metacognition | An awareness and understanding of one's own cognitive (thinking) processes (Module 26)
|
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|
| Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) | A widely used self-report test that identifies people with psychological difficulties and is employed to predict some everyday behaviors (Module 31)
|
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| mirror neurons | Neurons (nerve cells) that fire when a person enacts a particular behavior and also when a person views others' behavior (Module 5)
|
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| mood disorders | Disturbances (illness) in emotional experience that are strong enough to intrude (interrupt) on everyday living (Module 34)
|
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|
| mood stabilizers | Drugs used to treat mood disorders that prevent manic episodes of bipolar disorder (Module 38)
|
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| motivation | The factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms (Module 22)
|
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| motor area | The part of the cortex that is largely responsible for the body's voluntary movement (Module 7)
|
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| motor (efferent) neurons | Neurons (nerve cells) that communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands (Module 6)
|
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|
| multiple personality disorder | See dissociative identity disorder (Module 34)
|
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|
| myelin sheath | A protective coat of fat and protein that wraps around the neuron (nerve cell) (Module 5)
|
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|
|
| narcissistic personality disorder | A personality (see glossary definition) disturbance characterized by an exaggerated (inflated) sense of self-importance (Module 34)
|
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| narcotics | Drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety (unease, nervousness) (Module 14)
|
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|
|
| nativist approach to language development | The theory that a genetically determined, innate mechanism directs language development (Module 21)
|
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|
| naturalistic observation | Research in which an investigator simply observes some naturally occurring (happening) behavior and does not make a change in the situation (Module 3)
|
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|
| nature-nurture issue | The issue of the degree to which environment (surroundings) and heredity (inherited) influence behavior (Module 25)
|
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|
|
| need for achievement | A stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for and attaining (reaching) a level of excellence (Module 23)
|
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| need for affiliation | An interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people (Module 23)
|
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|
| need for power | A tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others, and to be seen as a powerful individual (Module 23)
|
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|
| negative reinforcer | An unpleasant stimulus (see glossary definition) whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future (Module 16)
|
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|
|
| neo-Freudian psychoanalysts | Psychoanalysts who were trained in traditional Freudian theory but who later rejected some of its major points (Module 29)
|
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|
| neonate | A newborn child (Module 26)
|
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|
| neurons | Nerve cells, the basic elements of the nervous system (Module 5)
|
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|
|
| neuroplasticity | Changes in the brain that occur throughout the life span relating to the addition of new neurons (nerve cell), new interconnections (relationships) between neurons, and the reorganization of information-processing areas (Module 7)
|
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|
|
| neuroscience perspective | The approach that views behavior from the perspective (view) of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions (Module 2)
|
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|
|
| neurotransmitters | Chemicals that carry messages across the synapse (see glossary definition) to the dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiver neuron (nerve cell) (Module 5)
|
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|
|
| neutral stimulus | A stimulus (see glossary definition) that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest (Module 15)
|
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|
| obedience | A change in behavior in response to the commands of others (Module 40)
|
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|
|
| obesity | Body weight that is more than 20 percent above the average weight for a person of a particular height (Module 23)
|
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|
|
| object permanence | The awareness that objects—and people—continue to exist even if they are out of sight (Module 26)
|
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|
|
| observational learning | Learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model (Module 17)
|
|
|
|
| obsession | A persistent (constant), unwanted thought or idea that keeps recurring (returning) (Module 34)
|
|
|
|
| obsessive-compulsive disorder | A disorder (illness) characterized by obsessions (fascination) or compulsions (compelling) (Module 34)
|
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|
|
| Oedipal conflict | A child's sexual interest in his or her opposite-sex parent, typically resolved through identification with the same-sex parent (Module 29)
|
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|
|
| operant conditioning | Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences (result) (Module 16)
|
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|
|
| operational definition | The translation of a hypothesis (see glossary definition) into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed (Module 3)
|
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|
|
| opponent-process theory of color vision | The theory that receptor (receiving) cells for color are linked in pairs, working in opposition (opposite) to each other (Module 9)
|
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|
|
| optic nerve | A bundle of ganglion axons (see glossary definition) that carry visual information to the brain (Module 9)
|
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|
|
| oral stage | According to Sigmund Freud, a stage from birth to age 12 to 18 months, in which an infant's center of pleasure is the mouth (Module 29)
|
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|
|
| overgeneralization | The phenomenon (event, process) by which children apply language rules even when the application results in an error (Module 21)
|
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|
| ovulation | The point at which an egg is released from the ovaries (Module 23)
|
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|
|
| panic disorder | Anxiety (unease, nervousness) disorder (illness) that takes the form of panic attacks lasting from a few seconds to as long as several hours (Module 34)
|
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|
|
| parasympathetic division | The part of the autonomic (automatic) division of the nervous system that acts to calm the body after an emergency or a stressful situation has ended (Module 6)
|
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|
|
| partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule | Reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time (Module 16)
|
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|
|
| passionate (or romantic) love | A state of intense absorption (interest) in someone that includes intense physiological (body's processes) arousal, psychological interest, and caring for the needs of another (Module 42)
|
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|
|
| perception | The sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration (combining) of stimuli by the sense organs and brain (Module 8)
|
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|
|
| peripheral nervous system | The part of the nervous system that includes the autonomic (automatic) and somatic (bodily) subdivisions; made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites (see glossary definitions), it branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities (outer parts) of the body (Module 6)
|
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|
|
| peripheral route processing | Message interpretation characterized by consideration of the source and related general information rather than of the message itself (Module 39)
|
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|
|
| permissive parents | Parents who give their children relaxed or inconsistent direction and, although they are warm, require little of them (Module 26)
|
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|
|
| personal stressors | Major life events, such as the death of a family member, that have immediate consequences (results) that generally fade with time (Module 43)
|
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|
|
| personality | The pattern of enduring (lasting) characteristics (traits, distinctive) that produce consistency and individuality in a given person (Module 29)
|
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|
|
| personality disorder | A disorder (illness) characterized by a set of inflexible, maladaptive (not adapting) behavior patterns that keep a person from functioning appropriately (properly) in society (Module 34)
|
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|
|
| person-centered therapy | Therapy in which the goal is to reach one's potential for self-actualization (see glossary definition) (Module 37)
|
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|
|
| phallic stage | According to Sigmund Freud, a period beginning around age 3 during which a child's pleasure focuses on the genitals (Module 29)
|
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|
|
| phobia | An intense, irrational (unfounded) fear of specific objects or situations (Module 34)
|
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|
|
| pituitary gland | The major component of the endocrine system (see glossary definition), or "master gland," which secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of the endocrine system (Module 6)
|
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|
|
| placebo | A false treatment, such as a pill, "drug," or other substance, without any significant (major) chemical properties or active ingredient (Module 4)
|
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|
|
| positive reinforcer | A stimulus (see glossary definition) added to the environment (surroundings) that brings about an increase in a preceding response (Module 16)
|
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|
|
| posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) | A phenomenon (event) in which victims of major catastrophes (disaster) or strong personal stressors feel long-lasting effects that may include reexperiencing the event in vivid flashbacks or dreams (Module 43)
|
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|
|
| practical intelligence | According to Robert Sternberg, intelligence related to overall success in living (Module 32)
|
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|
|
| prejudice | A negative (or positive) evaluation of a particular group and its members (Module 41)
|
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|
|
| preoperational stage | According to Jean Piaget, the period from 2 to 7 years of age that is characterized by language development (Module 26)
|
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|
| principle of conservation | The knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects (Module 26)
|
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|
| proactive interference | Interference (intrusion) in which information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material (Module 19)
|
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|
|
| procedural memory | Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball, sometimes referred to as nondeclarative memory (Module 18)
|
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|
|
| progesterone | A female sex hormone secreted by the ovaries (Module 23)
|
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|
|
| projective personality tests | Tests in which a person is shown an ambiguous (unclear) stimulus (see glossary definition) and asked to describe it or tell a story about it (Module 31)
|
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|
|
| prosocial behavior | Helping behavior (Module 42)
|
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|
|
| prototypes | Typical, highly representative samples of a concept (see glossary definition) (Module 20)
|
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|
|
| psychoactive drugs | Drugs that influence a person's emotions, perceptions (see glossary definition), and behavior (Module 14)
|
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|
|
| psychoanalysis | Freudian psychotherapy in which the goal is to release hidden unconscious (see glossary definition) thoughts and feelings in order to reduce their power in controlling behavior (Module 36)
|
|
|
|
| psychoanalytic perspective on psychological disorders | The perspective (view) that suggests that abnormal (unusual) behavior stems from childhood conflicts over opposing wishes regarding sex and aggression (Module 33)
|
|
|
|
| psychoanalytic theory | Sigmund Freud's theory that unconscious (see glossary definition) forces act as determinants (cause, source) of personality (see glossary definition) (Module 29)
|
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|
|
| psychodynamic approaches to personality | Approaches that assume that personality (see glossary definition) is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which people have little awareness and over which they have no control (Module 29)
|
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|
|
| psychodynamic perspective | The approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious (see glossary definition) inner forces over which the individual has little control (Module 2)
|
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|
|
| psychodynamic therapy | Therapy that seeks to bring unresolved past conflicts and unacceptable impulses from the unconscious (see glossary definition) into the conscious, where patients may deal with the problems more effectively (Module 36)
|
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|
|
| psychological tests | Standard measures devised to assess (evaluate) behavior objectively; used by psychologists to help people make decisions about their lives and understand more about themselves (Module 31)
|
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|
|
| psychology | The scientific study of behavior and mental processes (Module 1)
|
|
|
|
| psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) | The study of the relationship among psychological factors, the immune system, and the brain (Module 43)
|
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|
|
| psychophysics | The study of the relationship between the physical aspects of stimuli (stimulus) and our psychological experience of them (Module 8)
|
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|
|
| psychophysiological disorders | Medical problems influenced by an interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties (Module 43)
|
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|
|
| psychosexual stages | Developmental (growth) periods that children pass through during which they encounter conflicts between the demands of society and their own sexual urges (Module 29)
|
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|
|
| psychosocial development | Development of individuals' interactions and understanding of each other and of their knowledge and understanding of themselves as members of society (Module 26)
|
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|
|
| psychotherapy | Treatment in which a trained professional—a therapist—uses psychological techniques to help a person overcome psychological difficulties and disorders (illness), resolve problems in living, or bring about personal growth (Module 36)
|
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|
|
| puberty | The period at which maturation (maturity) of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age 11 or 12 for girls and 13 or 14 for boys (Module 27)
|
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|
| punishment | A stimulus (see glossary definition) that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again (Module 16)
|
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|
|
| random assignment to condition | A procedure in which participants are assigned to different experimental groups or "conditions" on the basis of chance and chance alone (Module 3)
|
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|
|
| rapid eye movement (REM) sleep | Sleep occupying 20 percent of an adult's sleeping time, characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections (in males); eye movements; and the experience of dreaming (Module 12)
|
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|
|
| rational-emotive behavior therapy | A form of therapy that attempts to restructure (reorganize) a person's belief system into a more realistic, rational (balanced), and logical set of views by challenging dysfunctional (not functioning) beliefs that maintain irrational behavior (Module 36)
|
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|
|
| recall | Memory task in which specific information must be retrieved (Module 19)
|
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|
|
| recognition | Memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus (see glossary definition) and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives (Module 19)
|
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|
| reflex | An automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus (Modules 6, 26)
|
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|
| rehearsal | The repetition of information that has entered short-term memory (Module 18)
|
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|
|
| reinforcement | The process by which a stimulus (see glossary definition) increases the probability (chance) that a preceding behavior will be repeated (Module 16)
|
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|
|
| reinforcer | Any stimulus (see glossary definition) that increases the probability (chance) that a preceding behavior will occur again (Module 16)
|
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|
|
| replication | The repetition of research, sometimes using other procedures, settings, and groups of participants, to increase confidence in prior findings (Module 3)
|
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|
|
| repression | The primary (main) defense mechanism (device, tool) in which unacceptable or unpleasant id (see glossary definition) impulses are pushed back into the unconscious (see glossary definition) (Module 29)
|
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|
|
| resting state | The state in which there is a negative electrical charge of about -70 millivolts within a neuron (nerve cell) (Module 5)
|
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|
|
| reticular formation | The part of the brain extending from the medulla through the pons and made up of groups of nerve cells that can immediately activate other parts of the brain to produce general bodily arousal (stimulation) (Module 7)
|
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| retina | The part of the eye that converts the electromagnetic energy of light to electrical impulses for transmission to the brain (Module 9)
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| retroactive interference | Interference (hinderance) in which there is difficulty in the recall of information learned earlier because of later exposure to different material (Module 19)
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| reuptake | The reabsorption of neurotransmitters (see glossary definition) by a terminal button (see glossary definition) (Module 5)
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| rods | Thin, cylindrical receptor (receiving) cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light (Module 9)
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| Rorschach test | A test that involves showing a series of symmetrical (balanced, proportional) visual stimuli (stimulus) to people who then are asked what the figures represent to them (Module 31)
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| Schachter-Singer theory of emotion | The belief that emotions are determined jointly by a nonspecific kind of physiological (bodily function) arousal and its interpretation, based on environmental (natural surroundings) cues (Module 24)
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| schedules of reinforcement | Different patterns of frequency (occurrences) and timing of reinforcement (see glossary definition) following desired behavior (Module 16)
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| schemas | Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias (prejudice) the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled; sets of cognitions (thoughts) about people and social experiences (Modules 19, 39)
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| schizophrenia | A class of disorders (illness) in which severe distortion (twisting) of reality occurs (Module 34)
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| scientific method | The approach (view) through which psychologists systematically (scientifically) acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena (happenings) of interest (Module 3)
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| self-actualization | A state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential, each in his or her own unique way (Modules 22, 30)
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| self-efficacy | Belief in one's personal capabilities (abilities). Self-efficacy underlies people's faith in their ability to carry out a particular behavior or produce a desired outcome (Module 30)
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| self-esteem | The component of personality (see glossary definition) that encompasses our positive and negative self evaluations (Module 30)
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| self-report measures | A method of gathering data about people by asking them questions about a sample of their behavior (Module 31)
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| self-serving bias | The tendency (leaning) to attribute (attach) personal success to personal factors (skill, ability, or effort) and to attribute failure to factors outside oneself (Module 39)
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| semantic memory | Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce (figure out) other facts (Module 18)
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| semicircular canals | Three tubelike structures of the inner ear containing fluid that sloshes through them when the head moves, signaling rotational (turning) or angular movement to the brain (Module 10)
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| sensation | The activation of the sense organs by a source of physical energy (Module 8)
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| sensorimotor stage | According to Jean Piaget, the stage from birth to 2 years, during which a child has little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or other symbols (Module 26)
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| sensory area | The site in the brain of the tissue that corresponds to each of the senses, with the degree of sensitivity related to the amount of the tissue allocated (set aside) to that sense (Module 7)
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| sensory memory | The initial (primary), momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant (Module 18)
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| sensory (afferent) neurons | Neurons (nerve cells) that transmit information from the perimeter (outer part) of the body to the central nervous system (see glossary definition) (Module 6)
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| sequential research | A research method that combines cross-sectional (representative sample) and longitudinal (long-term) research by considering a number of different age groups and examining them at several points in time (Module 25)
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| shaping | The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations (similarities) of the desired behavior (Module 16)
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| short-term memory | Memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds (Module 18)
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| situational causes (of behavior) | Perceived (apparent) causes of behavior that are based on environmental (surrounding world) factors (Module 39)
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| skin senses | The senses of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain (Module 10)
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| social cognition | The cognitive (thinking) processes by which people understand and make sense of others and themselves (Module 39)
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| social cognitive approaches to personality | Theories that emphasize the influence of a person's cognitions—thoughts, feelings, expectations, and values—as well as observation of others' behavior, in determining personality (see glossary definition) (Module 30)
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| social influence | The process by which the actions of an individual or group affect (influence) the behavior of others (Module 40)
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| social psychology | The scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected (influenced) by others (Module 39)
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| social support | A mutual network of caring, interested others (Module 43)
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| sociocultural perspective on psychological disorders | The perspective (view) that assumes that people's behavior—both normal and abnormal—is shaped by the kind of family group, society, and culture in which they live (Module 33)
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| somatic division | The part of the peripheral nervous system (see glossary definition) that specializes in the control of voluntary (controlled) movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs (Module 6)
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| somatoform disorders | Psychological difficulties that take on a physical (somatic) form, but for which there is no medical cause (Module 34)
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| sound | The movement of air molecules brought about by a source of vibration (Module 10)
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| spinal cord | A bundle of neurons (nerve cells) that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back and is the main means for transmitting messages between the brain and the body (Module 6)
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| spontaneous recovery | The reemergence (reoccurrence) of an extinguished conditioned response (see glossary definition) after a period of rest and with no further conditioning (Module 15)
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| spontaneous remission | Recovery without treatment (Module 37)
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| stage 1 sleep | The state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude (volume, size) brain waves (Module 12)
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| stage 2 sleep | A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of sleep spindles (Module 12)
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| stage 3 sleep | A sleep characterized by slow brain waves, with greater peaks and valleys in the wave pattern than in stage 2 sleep (Module 12)
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| stage 4 sleep | The deepest stage of sleep, during which we are least responsive to outside stimulation (Module 12)
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| stereotype | A set of generalized (general) beliefs and expectations about a particular group and its members (Module 41)
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| stimulants | Drugs that have an arousal (stimulating) effect on the central nervous system (see glossary definition), causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension (Module 14)
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| stimulus | Energy that produces a response in a sense organ (Module 8)
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| stimulus discrimination | The process that occurs if two stimuli (stimulus) are sufficiently distinct (different) from each other that one evokes (brings up) a conditioned response (see glossary definition) but the other does not; the ability to differentiate (tell the difference) between stimuli (Module 15)
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| stimulus generalization | Occurs when a conditioned response (see glossary definition) follows a stimulus (see glossary definition) that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus; the more similar the two stimuli are, the more likely generalization is to occur (Module 15)
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| stress | A person's response to events that are threatening or challenging (Module 43)
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| structuralism | Wilhelm Wundt's approach, which focuses on uncovering the fundamental mental components (parts) of consciousness, thinking, and other kinds of mental states and activities (Module 2)
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| superego | According to Sigmund Freud, the final personality (see glossary definition) structure to develop; it represents the rights and wrongs of society as handed down by a person's parents, teachers, and other important figures (Module 29)
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| survey research | Research in which people chosen to represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes (Module 3)
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| sympathetic division | The part of the autonomic division (see glossary definition) of the nervous system that acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations, engaging all the organism's (living thing) resources to respond to a threat (Module 6)
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| synapse | The space between two neurons (nerve cells) where the axon (see glossary definition) of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites (see glossary definition) of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages (Module 5)
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| systematic desensitization | A behavioral (way of behaving) technique in which gradual exposure to an anxiety producing (unease, nervousness) stimulus is paired with relaxation to extinguish the response of anxiety (Module 36)
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| telegraphic speech | Sentences in which words not critical to the message are left out (Module 21)
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| temperament | The basic, innate (inborn) disposition (tendency) that emerges early in life (Modules 26, 30)
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| teratogens | Environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produce a birth defect (Module 25)
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| terminal buttons | Small bulges at the end of axons (see glossary definition) that send messages to other neurons (nerve cells) (Module 5)
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| test standardization | A technique used to validate (confirm) questions in personality (see glossary definition) tests by studying the responses of people with known diagnoses (identify an illness) (Module 31)
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| thalamus | The part of the brain located in the middle of the central core that acts primarily to relay information about the senses (Module 7)
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| Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) | A test consisting of a series of pictures about which a person is asked to write a story (Module 31)
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| theories | Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena (happenings) of interest (Module 3)
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| theory of multiple intelligences | Howard Gardner's theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres (areas) of intelligence (Module 32)
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| thinking | The manipulation (handling, controlling) of mental representations of information (Module 20)
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| tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon | The inability to recall information that one realizes one knows—a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory (Module 19)
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| top-down processing | Perception (see glossary definition) that is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations (Module 11)
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| trait theory | A model of personality (see glossary definition) that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe personality (Module 30)
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| traits | Consistent personality (see glossary definition) characteristics and behaviors displayed in different situations (Module 30)
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| transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) | A depression treatment in which a precise magnetic pulse is directed to a specific area of the brain (Module 38)
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| transference | The transfer of feelings to a psychoanalyst of love or anger that had been originally directed to a patient's parents or other authority figures (Module 36)
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| transsexuals | Persons who believe they were born with the body of the other gender (Module 23)
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| treatment | The manipulation (handling, controlling) implemented (carried out) by the experimenter (Module 3)
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| trichromatic theory of color vision | The theory that there are three kinds of cones in the retina, each of which responds primarily to a specific range of wavelengths (Module 9)
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| trust-versus-mistrust stage | According to Erik Erikson, the first stage of psychosocial development, occurring from birth to age 11/2 years, during which time infants develop feelings of trust or lack of trust (Module 26)
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| unconditional positive regard | An attitude of acceptance and respect on the part of an observer, no matter what a person says or does (Module 30)
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| unconditioned response (UCR) | A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food) (Module 15)
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| unconditioned stimulus (UCS) | A stimulus (see glossary definition) that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned (Module 15)
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| unconscious | A part of the personality (see glossary definition) that contains the memories, knowledge, beliefs, feelings, urges, drives, and instincts of which the individual is not aware (Module 29)
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| unconscious wish fulfillment theory | Sigmund Freud's theory that dreams represent unconscious (see glossary definition) wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled (Module 12)
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| uninvolved parents | Parents who show little interest in their children and are emotionally detached (Module 26)
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| universal grammar | Noam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a common underlying structure (Module 21)
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| variable-interval schedule | A schedule by which the time between reinforcements (see glossary definition) varies around some average rather than being fixed (Module 16)
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| variable-ratio schedule | A schedule by which reinforcement (see glossary definition) occurs after a varying number of responses rather than a fixed number (Module 16)
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| variables | Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way (Module 3)
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| visual illusions | Physical stimuli (stimulus) that consistently produce errors in perception (see glossary definition) (Module 11)
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| wear-and-tear theories of aging | Theories that suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently (Module 28)
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| Weber's law | A basic law of psychophysics (see glossary definition) stating that a just noticeable difference is in constant proportion to the intensity of an initial stimulus (Module 8)
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| weight set point | The particular level of weight that the body strives to maintain (Module 23)
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| zone of proximal development (ZPD) | According to Lev Vygotsky, the level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend (understand) or perform a task on his or her own (Module 26)
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| zygote | The new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm (Module 25)
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