acceleration | Approach to educating the gifted that moves them through the curriculum at an unusually rapid pace. 362
|
|
|
|
accommodation | Piaget's term for changes in a cognitive structure to include new information. 33
|
|
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|
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) | Viral disease that undermines effective functioning of the immune system. 99
|
|
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|
acute medical conditions | Occasional illnesses that last a short time. 325
|
|
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|
adaptation | Piaget's term for adjustment to new information about the environment. 33
|
|
|
|
adolescence | Developmental transition between childhood and adulthood entailing major physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes. 396
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|
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|
adolescent growth spurt | Sharp increase in height and weight that precedes sexual maturity. 400
|
|
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|
adolescent rebellion | Pattern of emotional turmoil, characteristic of a minority of adolescents that may involve conflict with family, alienation from adult society, reckless behavior, and rejection of adult values. 454
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|
alleles | Two or more alternative forms of a gene that can occupy the same position on paired chromosomes and affect the same trait. 66
|
|
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|
altruism | Motivation to help others without expectation of reward; may involve self-denial or self-sacrifice. 303
|
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|
altruistic behavior | Activity intended to help another person with no expectation of reward. 207
|
|
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|
ambivalent (resistant) attachment | Pattern in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset during his or her absence, and both seeks and resists contact on his or her return. 214
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|
animism | Tendency to attribute life to objects that are not alive. 258
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|
anorexia nervosa | Eating disorder characterized by self-starvation and extreme weight loss. 407
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|
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|
A-not-B error | Tendency for 8- to 12-month-old infants to search for a hidden object in a place where they previously found it rather than in the place where they most recently saw it being hidden. 178
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|
anoxia | Lack of oxygen, which may cause brain damage. 116
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|
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|
Apgar scale | Standard measurement of a newborn's condition; it assesses appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, and respiration. 117
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|
art therapy | Therapeutic approach that allows a person to express troubled feelings without words, using a variety of art materials and media. 332
|
|
|
|
assimilation | Piaget's term for incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive structure. 33
|
|
|
|
assisted reproductive technology (ART) | Methods used to achieve conception through artificial means. 60
|
|
|
|
asthma | A chronic respiratory disease characterized by sudden attacks of coughing, wheezing, and difficulty in breathing. 326
|
|
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|
attachment | Reciprocal, enduring tie between two people—especially between infant and caregiver—each of whom contributes to the quality of the relationship. 213
|
|
|
|
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | Syndrome characterized by persistent inattention and distractibility, impulsivity, low tolerance for frustration, and inappropriate overactivity. 359
|
|
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|
authoritarian parenting | In Baumrind's terminology, parenting style emphasizing control and obedience. 301
|
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|
authoritative parenting | In Baumrind's terminology, parenting style blending warmth and respect for a child's individuality with an effort to instill social values. 301
|
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|
autobiographical memory | A type of episodic memory of distinctive experiences that form a person's life history. 267
|
|
|
|
autonomy versus shame and doubt | Erikson's second stage in psychosocial development, in which children achieve a balance between self-determination and control by others. 221
|
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|
autosomes | In humans, the 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual expression. 65
|
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|
avoidant attachment | Pattern in which an infant rarely cries when separated from the primary caregiver and avoids contact on his or her return. 214
|
|
|
|
basic trust versus basic mistrust | Erikson's first stage in psychosocial development, in which infants develop a sense of the reliability of people and objects. 212
|
|
|
|
Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development | Standardized test of infants' and toddlers' mental and motor development. 171
|
|
|
|
behavioral genetics | Quantitative study of relative hereditary and environmental influences on behavior. 76
|
|
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|
behaviorism | Learning theory that emphasizes the predictable role of environment in causing observable behavior. 29
|
|
|
|
behaviorist approach | Approach to the study of cognitive development that is concerned with the basic mechanics of learning. 169
|
|
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|
behavior therapy | Therapy that uses principles of learning theory to eliminate undesirable behaviors. 331
|
|
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|
bilingual | Fluent in two languages. 351
|
|
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|
bilingual education | System of teaching non-English-speaking children in their native language while they learn English and later switching to all-English instruction. 351
|
|
|
|
bioecological theory | Bronfenbrenner's approach to understanding processes and contexts of child development that identifies five levels of environmental influence. 35
|
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|
|
body image | Descriptive and evaluative beliefs about one's appearance. 322
|
|
|
|
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) | Neurological and behavioral test to measure a neonate's responses to the environment. 118
|
|
|
|
bulimia nervosa | Eating disorder in which a person regularly eats huge quantities of food and then purges the body by laxatives, induced vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise. 408
|
|
|
|
bullying | Aggression deliberately and persistently directed against a particular target, or victim, typically one who is weak, vulnerable, and defenseless. 385
|
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|
canalization | Limitation on variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics. 78
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|
case study | Study of a single subject, such as an individual or family. 43
|
|
|
|
cell death | In brain development, normal elimination of excess cells to achieve more efficient functioning. 145
|
|
|
|
central executive | In Baddeley's model, element of working memory that controls the processing of information. 266
|
|
|
|
central nervous system | Brain and spinal cord. 140
|
|
|
|
centration | In Piaget's theory, tendency of preoperational children to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others. 260
|
|
|
|
cephalocaudal principle | Principle that development proceeds in a head-to-tail direction; that is, that upper parts of the body develop before lower parts of the trunk. 89
|
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|
cesarean delivery | Delivery of a baby by surgical removal from the uterus. 112
|
|
|
|
child development | Scientific study of processes of change and stability in children from conception through adolescence. 6
|
|
|
|
child-directed speech (CDS) | Form of speech often used in talking to babies or toddlers; includes slow, simplified speech, a high-pitched tone, exaggerated vowel sounds, short words and sentences, and much repetition; also called parentese. 197
|
|
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|
childhood depression | Mood disorder characterized by such symptoms as a prolonged sense of friendlessness, inability to have fun or concentrate, fatigue, extreme activity or apathy, feelings of worthlessness, weight change, physical complaints, and thoughts of death or suicide. 331
|
|
|
|
chromosomes | Coils of DNA that consist of genes. 65
|
|
|
|
chronic medical conditions | Long-lasting or recurrent physical, developmental, behavioral, and/or emotional conditions that require special health services. 326
|
|
|
|
chronosystem | Bronfenbrenner's term for effects of time on other developmental systems. 36
|
|
|
|
circular reactions | Piaget's term for processes by which an infant learns to reproduce desired occurrences originally discovered by chance. 174
|
|
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|
classical conditioning | Learning based on association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a particular response with another stimulus that does elicit the response. 30, 169
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|
class inclusion | Understanding the relationship between a whole and its parts. 337
|
|
|
|
code mixing | Use of elements of two languages, sometimes in the same utterance, by young children in households where both languages are spoken. 197
|
|
|
|
code switching | Changing one's speech to match the situation, as in people who are bilingual. 197
|
|
|
|
cognitive development | Pattern of change in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. 8
|
|
|
|
cognitive neuroscience | Study of links between neural processes and cognitive abilities. 42
|
|
|
|
cognitive neuroscience approach | Approach to the study of cognitive development that links brain processes with cognitive ones. 169
|
|
|
|
cognitive perspective | Perspective that looks at the development of mental processes such as thinking. 32
|
|
|
|
cognitive-stage theory | Piaget's theory that children's cognitive development advances in a series of four stages involving qualitatively distinct types of mental operations. 32
|
|
|
|
cohort | A group of people born at about the same time. 16
|
|
|
|
commitment | Marcia's term for personal investment in an occupation or system of beliefs. 441
|
|
|
|
committed compliance | Kochanska's term for wholehearted obedience of a parent's orders without reminders or lapses. 224
|
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|
componential element | Sternberg's term for the analytic aspect of intelligence. 348
|
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|
conceptual knowledge | Acquired interpretive understandings stored in long-term memory. 423
|
|
|
|
concordant | Term describing the tendency of twins to share the same trait or disorder. 76
|
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|
|
concrete operations | The third stage of Piagetian cognitive development (approximately from age 7 to 12), during which children develop logical but not abstract thinking. 336
|
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|
conduct disorder (CD) | Repetitive, persistent pattern of aggressive, antisocial behavior violating societal norms or the rights of others. 330
|
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|
|
conscience | Internal standards of behavior, which usually control one's conduct and produce emotional discomfort when violated. 224
|
|
|
|
conservation | Piaget's term for awareness that two objects that are equal according to a certain measure remain equal in the face of perceptual alteration so long as nothing has been added to or taken away from either object. 260
|
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|
|
constructive play | In Smilansky's terminology, second cognitive level of play, involving use of objects or materials to make something; also called object play. 295
|
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|
contextual element | Sternberg's term for the practical aspect of intelligence. 348
|
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|
contextual element | Sternberg's term for the practical aspect of intelligence. 384
|
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|
|
contextual perspective | View of child development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context. 35
|
|
|
|
control group | In an experiment, a group of people, similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive the treatment under study. 46
|
|
|
|
conventional morality (or morality of conventional role conformity) | Second level in Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning in which standards of authority figures are internalized. 425
|
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|
convergent thinking | Thinking aimed at finding the one right answer to a problem. 362
|
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|
coregulation | Transitional stage in the control of behavior in which parents exercise general supervision and children exercise moment-to-moment self-regulation. 368
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|
corporal punishment | Use of physical force with the intention of causing pain but not injury so as to correct or control behavior. 299
|
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|
correlational study | Research design intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists. 44
|
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|
crisis | Marcia's term for a period of conscious decision making related to identity formation. 441
|
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|
critical period | Specific time when a given event or its absence has a profound and specific impact on development. 18
|
|
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|
cross-modal transfer | Ability to use information gained by one sense to guide another. 182
|
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|
|
cross-sectional study | Study designed to assess age-related differences, in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion. 48
|
|
|
|
cultural socialization | Parental practices that teach children about their racial/ethnic heritage and promote cultural practices and cultural pride. 445
|
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|
culture | A society's or group's total way of life, including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language, and physical products—all learned behavior passed on from adults to children. 12
|
|
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|
culture-fair test | An intelligence test that deals with experiences common to various cultures, in an attempt to avoid cultural bias. 347
|
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|
culture-free test | An intelligence test that, if it were possible to design, would have no culturally linked content. 347
|
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|
culture-relevant test | An intelligence test that takes into account the adaptive tasks children face in their culture. 347
|
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|
decenter | In Piaget's terminology, to think simultaneously about several aspects of a situation. 260
|
|
|
|
declarative knowledge | Acquired factual knowledge stored in long-term memory. 423
|
|
|
|
decoding | Process of phonetic analysis by which a printed word is converted to spoken form before retrieval from long-term memory. 351
|
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|
|
deductive reasoning | Type of logical reasoning that moves from a general premise about a class to a conclusion about a particular member or members of the class. 337
|
|
|
|
deferred imitation | Piaget's term for reproduction of an observed behavior after the passage of time by calling up a stored symbol of it. 177
|
|
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|
Denver Developmental Screening Test | Screening test given to children age 1 month to 6 years to determine whether they are developing normally. 152
|
|
|
|
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) | Chemical that carries inherited instructions for the development of all cellular forms of life. 64
|
|
|
|
dependent variable | In an experiment, the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable. 46
|
|
|
|
depth perception | Ability to perceive objects and surfaces in three dimensions. 154
|
|
|
|
diabetes | One of the most common diseases of childhood. It is characterized by high levels of glucose in the blood as a result of defective insulin production, ineffective insulin action, or both. 326
|
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|
|
differentiation | Process by which cells acquire specialized structure and function. 145
|
|
|
|
difficult children | Children with irritable temperament, irregular biological rhythms, and intense emotional responses. 209
|
|
|
|
discipline | Methods of molding children's character and of teaching them to exercise self-control and engage in acceptable behavior. 298
|
|
|
|
dishabituation | Increase in responsiveness after presentation of a new stimulus. 180
|
|
|
|
disorganized-disoriented attachment | Pattern in which an infant, after separation from the primary caregiver, shows contradictory behaviors on his or her return. 214
|
|
|
|
divergent thinking | Thinking that produces a variety of fresh, diverse possibilities. 362
|
|
|
|
dominant inheritance | Pattern of inheritance in which, when a child receives different alleles, only the dominant one is expressed. 66
|
|
|
|
Down syndrome | Chromosomal disorder characterized by moderate-to-severe mental retardation and by such physical signs as a downward-sloping skin fold at the inner corners of the eyes. 72
|
|
|
|
dramatic play | Play involving imaginary people or situations; also called fantasy play, pretend play, or imaginative play. 295
|
|
|
|
drug therapy | Administration of drugs to treat emotional disorders. 332
|
|
|
|
dual representation hypothesis | Proposal that children under age 3 have difficulty grasping spatial relationships because of the need to keep more than one mental representation in mind at the same time. 179
|
|
|
|
dynamic systems theory (DST) | Thelen's theory that holds that motor development is a dynamic process of active coordination of multiple systems within the infant in relation to the environment. 155
|
|
|
|
dynamic tests | Tests based on Vygotsky's theory that emphasize potential rather than past learning. 349
|
|
|
|
dyslexia | Developmental disorder in which reading achievement is substantially lower than predicted by IQ or age. 358
|
|
|
|
early intervention | Systematic process of providing services to help families meet young children's developmental needs. 172
|
|
|
|
easy children | Children with a generally happy temperament, regular biological rhythms, and a readiness to accept new experiences. 209
|
|
|
|
ecological theory of perception | Theory developed by Eleanor and James Gibson that describes developing motor and perceptual abilities as interdependent parts of a functional system that guides behavior in varying contexts. 154
|
|
|
|
egocentrism | Piaget's term for an inability to consider another person's point of view; a characteristic of young children's thought. 208, 260
|
|
|
|
elaboration | Mnemonic strategy of making mental associations involving items to be remembered. 343
|
|
|
|
electronic fetal monitoring | Mechanical monitoring of fetal heartbeat during labor and delivery. 111
|
|
|
|
elicited imitation | Research method in which infants or toddlers are induced to imitate a specific series of actions they have seen but not necessarily done before. 177
|
|
|
|
embryonic stage | Second stage of prenatal development (2 to 8 weeks), characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs. 90
|
|
|
|
emergent literacy | Preschoolers' development of skills, knowledge, and attitudes that underlie reading and writing. 273
|
|
|
|
emerging adulthood | Proposed transitional period between adolescence and adulthood, usually extending from the late teens through the mid-20s. 466
|
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|
|
emotions | Subjective reactions to experience that are associated with physiological and behavioral changes. 205
|
|
|
|
empathy | Ability to put oneself in another person's place and feel what the other person feels. 208
|
|
|
|
encoding | Process by which information is prepared for long-term storage and later retrieval. 265
|
|
|
|
English-immersion approach | Approach to teaching English as a second language in which instruction is presented only in English. 351
|
|
|
|
enrichment | Approach to educating the gifted that broadens and deepens knowledge and skills through extra activities, projects, field trips, or mentoring. 362
|
|
|
|
enuresis | Repeated urination in clothing or in bed. 240
|
|
|
|
environment | Totality of nonhereditary, or experiential, influences on development. 10
|
|
|
|
epigenesis | Mechanism that turns genes on or off and determines functions of body cells. 68
|
|
|
|
episodic memory | Long-term memory of specific experiences or events, linked to time and place. 267
|
|
|
|
equilibration | Piaget's term for the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements; achieved through a balance between assimilation and accommodation. 33
|
|
|
|
ethnic gloss | Overgeneralization about an ethnic or cultural group that blurs or obscures variations within the group or overlaps with other such groups. 14
|
|
|
|
ethnic group | A group united by ancestry, race, religion, language, or national origin that contributes to a sense of shared identity. 12
|
|
|
|
ethnographic study | In-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation. 44
|
|
|
|
ethology | Study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the species. 36
|
|
|
|
evolutionary psychology | Application of Darwinian principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to human psychology. 37
|
|
|
|
evolutionary/sociobiological perspective | View of human development that focuses on evolutionary and biological bases of social behavior. 36
|
|
|
|
executive function | Conscious control of thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish goals or solve problems. 266, 341
|
|
|
|
exosystem | Bronfenbrenner's term for linkages between two or more settings, one of which does not contain the child. 36
|
|
|
|
experiential element | Sternberg's term for the insightful aspect of intelligence. 348
|
|
|
|
experiment | Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other. 46
|
|
|
|
experimental group | In an experiment, the group receiving the treatment under study. 46
|
|
|
|
explicit memory | Intentional and conscious memory, generally of facts, names, and events; sometimes called declarative memory. 188
|
|
|
|
extended family | Multigenerational kinship network of parents, children, and other relatives, sometimes living together in an extended-family household. 11
|
|
|
|
externalizing behaviors | Behaviors by which a child acts out emotional difficulties; for example, aggression or hostility. 368
|
|
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|
external memory aids | Mnemonic strategies using something outside the person. 342
|
|
|
|
family therapy | Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees the whole family together to analyze patterns of family functioning. 331
|
|
|
|
fast mapping | Process by which a child absorbs the meaning of a new word after hearing it once or twice in conversation. 270
|
|
|
|
fertilization | Union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote; also called conception. 59
|
|
|
|
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) | Combination of mental, motor, and developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy. 96
|
|
|
|
fetal stage | Final stage of prenatal development (from 8 weeks to birth), characterized by increased differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size. 91
|
|
|
|
fine motor skills | Physical skills that involve the small muscles and eye-hand coordination. 152, 241
|
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|
|
foreclosure | Identity status, described by Marcia, in which a person who has not spent time considering alternatives (that is, has not been in crisis) is committed to other people's plans for his or her life. 442
|
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|
formal games with rules | Organized games with known procedures and penalties. 295
|
|
|
|
formal operations | In Piaget's theory, final stage of cognitive development, characterized by the ability to think abstractly. 418
|
|
|
|
functional play | In Smilansky's terminology, lowest cognitive level of play, involving repetitive muscular movements; also called locomotor play. 295
|
|
|
|
gender | Significance of being male or female. 225
|
|
|
|
gender constancy | Awareness that one will always be male or female. Also called sex-category constancy. 289
|
|
|
|
gender identity | Awareness, developed in early childhood, that one is male or female. 286
|
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|
|
gender roles | Behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills, and traits that a culture considers appropriate for each sex; differs for males and females. 287
|
|
|
|
gender-schema theory | Theory, proposed by Bem, that children socialize themselves in their gender roles by developing a mentally organized network of information about what it means to be male or female in a particular culture. 290
|
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|
gender segregation | Tendency to select playmates of one's own gender. 297
|
|
|
|
gender stereotypes | Preconceived generalizations about male or female role behavior. 287
|
|
|
|
gender-typing | Socialization process by which children, at an early age, learn appropriate gender roles. 226, 287
|
|
|
|
generalized anxiety disorder | Anxiety not focused on any single target. 330
|
|
|
|
generic memory | Memory that produces scripts of familiar routines to guide behavior. 267
|
|
|
|
genes | Small segments of DNA located in definite positions on particular chromosomes; functional units of heredity. 65
|
|
|
|
genetic code | Sequence of bases within the DNA molecule; a set of rules that govern the formation of proteins that determine the structure and functions of living cells. 65
|
|
|
|
genetic counseling | Clinical service that advises prospective parents of their probable risk of having children with hereditary defects. 74
|
|
|
|
genotype | Genetic makeup of a person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics. 67
|
|
|
|
genotype–environment correlation | Tendency of certain genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each other; may be passive, reactive (evocative), or active. Also called genotype–environment covariance. 79
|
|
|
|
genotype–environment interaction | Effect of the interaction between genes and the environment on phenotypic variation. 79
|
|
|
|
germinal stage | First 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division, increasing complexity and differentiation, and implantation in the wall of the uterus. 89
|
|
|
|
gestation | Period of development between conception and birth. 86
|
|
|
|
gestational age | Age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother's last menstrual cycle. 86
|
|
|
|
goodness of fit | Appropriateness of environ-mental demands and constraints to a child's temperament. 211
|
|
|
|
gross motor skills | Physical skills that involve the large muscles. 152, 241
|
|
|
|
guided participation | Participation of an adult in a child's activity in a manner that helps to structure the activity and to bring the child's understanding of it closer to that of the adult. 188
|
|
|
|
habituation | Type of learning in which familiarity with a stimulus reduces, slows, or stops a response. 180
|
|
|
|
handedness | Preference for using a particular hand. 243
|
|
|
|
haptic perception | Ability to acquire information about properties of objects, such as size, weight, and texture, by handling them. 154
|
|
|
|
heredity | Inborn characteristics inherited from the biological parents. 10
|
|
|
|
heritability | Statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait within a given population at a particular time. 76
|
|
|
|
heterozygous | Possessing differing alleles for a trait. 66
|
|
|
|
historical generation | A group of people strongly influenced by a major historical event during their formative period. 16
|
|
|
|
holophrase | Single word that conveys a complete thought. 192
|
|
|
|
Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) | Instrument designed to measure the influence of the home environment on children's cognitive growth. 171
|
|
|
|
homozygous | Possessing two identical alleles for a trait. 66
|
|
|
|
horizontal décalage | Piaget's term for an inability to transfer learning about one type of conservation to other types, which causes a child to master different types of conservation tasks at different ages. 338
|
|
|
|
hostile aggression | Aggressive behavior intended to hurt another person. 382
|
|
|
|
hostile attribution bias | Tendency for individuals to perceive others as trying to hurt them and to strike out in retaliation or self-defense. 383
|
|
|
|
human genome | The complete sequence of genes in the human body. 65
|
|
|
|
hypertension | High blood pressure. 326
|
|
|
|
hypotheses | Possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of research. 24
|
|
|
|
hypothetical-deductive reasoning | Ability, believed by Piaget to accompany the stage of formal operations, to develop, consider, and test hypotheses. 419
|
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|
ideal self | Self one would like to be. 283
|
|
|
|
identification | In Freudian theory, process by which a young child adopts characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the parent of the same sex. 289
|
|
|
|
identity | In Erikson's terminology, a coherent conception of the self made up of goals, values, and beliefs to which a person is solidly committed. 440
|
|
|
|
identity achievement | Identity status, described by Marcia, that is characterized by commitment to choices made following a crisis, a period spent in exploring alternatives. 441
|
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|
identity diffusion | Identity status, described by Marcia, that is characterized by absence of commitment and lack of serious consideration of alternatives. 443
|
|
|
|
identity statuses | Marcia's term for states of ego development that depend on the presence or absence of crisis and commitment. 441
|
|
|
|
identity versus identity confusion | Erikson's fifth stage of psychosocial development, in which an adolescent seeks to develop a coherent sense of self, including the role she or he is to play in society. Also called identity versus role confusion. 440
|
|
|
|
imaginary audience | Elkind's term for observer who exists only in an adolescent's mind and is as concerned with the adolescent's thoughts and actions as the adolescent is. 421
|
|
|
|
implicit memory | Unconscious recall, generally of habits and skills; sometimes called procedural memory. 187
|
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imprinting | Instinctive form of learning in which, during a critical period in early development, a young animal forms an attachment to the first moving object it sees, usually the mother. 18, 127
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incomplete dominance | Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives two different alleles, resulting in partial expression of a trait. 71
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independent variable | In an experiment, the condition over which the experimenter has direct control. 46
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individual differences | Differences among children in characteristics, influences, or developmental outcomes. 9
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|
individual psychotherapy | Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees a troubled person one-on-one. 331
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individuation | Adolescent's struggle for autonomy and differentiation, or personal identity. 455
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inductive reasoning | Type of logical reasoning that moves from particular observations about members of a class to a general conclusion about that class. 337
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inductive techniques | Disciplinary techniques designed to induce desirable behavior by appealing to a child's sense of reason and fairness. 299
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|
industry versus inferiority | Erikson's fourth crisis of psychosocial development, in which children must learn the productive skills their culture requires or else face feelings of inferiority. 366
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|
infant mortality rate | Proportion of babies born alive who die within the 1st year. 157
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|
infertility | Inability to conceive after 12 months of trying. 59
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|
information-processing approach | Approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information. 34, 169
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initiative versus guilt | Erikson's third stage in psychosocial development, in which children balance the urge to pursue goals with moral reservations that may prevent carrying them out. 285
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instrumental aggression | Aggressive behavior used as a means of achieving a goal. 304, 382
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|
integration | Process by which neurons coordinate the activities of muscle groups. 145
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|
intellectual disability | Significantly subnormal cognitive functioning. Also referred to as cognitive disability or mental retardation. 358
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intelligent behavior | Behavior that is goal oriented and adaptive to circumstances and conditions of life. 170
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internalization | During socialization, process by which children accept societal standards of conduct as their own. 222
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internalizing behaviors | Behaviors by which emotional problems are turned inward; for example, anxiety or depression. 368
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invisible imitation | Imitation with parts of one's body that one cannot see. 177
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|
IQ (intelligence quotient) tests | Psychometric tests that seek to measure intelligence by comparing a test-taker's performance with standardized norms. 170
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|
irreversibility | Piaget's term for a preoperational child's failure to understand that an operation can go in two or more directions. 261
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|
kangaroo care | Method of skin-to-skin contact in which a newborn is laid face down between the mother's breasts. 123
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|
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC-II) | Nontraditional individual intelligence test designed to provide fair assessments of minority children and children with disabilities. 349
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|
laboratory observation | Research method in which all participants are observed under the same controlled conditions. 41
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|
language | Communication system based on words and grammar. 189
|
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|
language acquisition device (LAD) | In Chomsky's terminology, an inborn mechanism that enables children to infer linguistic rules from the language they hear. 194
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lateralization | Tendency of each of the brain's hemispheres to have specialized functions. 142
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|
learning disabilities (LDs) | Disorders that interfere with specific aspects of learning and school achievement. 358
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|
learning perspective | View of human development that holds that changes in behavior result from experience. 29
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|
linguistic speech | Verbal expression designed to convey meaning. 192
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|
literacy | Ability to read and write. 198
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|
longitudinal study | Study designed to assess changes in a sample over time. 48
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|
long-term memory | Storage of virtually unlimited capacity that holds information for long periods. 266
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|
low-birth-weight babies | Infants who weight less than 5½ pounds (2,500 grams) at birth because of prematurity or being small-for-date. 121
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|
macrosystem | Bronfenbrenner's term for a society's overall cultural patterns, including values, customs, and social systems. 36
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maturation | Unfolding of a universal natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes. 11
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mechanistic model | Model that views human development as a series of predictable responses to stimuli. 25
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menarche | A girl's first menstruation. 401
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mesosystem | Bronfenbrenner's term for linkages between two or more microsystems. 36
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metacognition | Awareness of one's own mental processes. 352
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metamemory | Understanding of processes of memory. 342
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|
microsystem | Bronfenbrenner's term for a setting in which a child interacts with others on an everyday, face-to-face basis. 36
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mirror neurons | Neurons that fire when a person does something or observes someone else doing the same thing. 208
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mnemonic strategies | Techniques to aid memory. 342
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|
moratorium | Identity status, described by Marcia, in which a person is considering alternatives (in crisis) and seems headed for commitment. 442
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mother-infant bond | Mother's feeling of close, caring connection with her newborn. 127
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|
multifactorial transmission | Combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain complex traits. 68
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|
mutations | Permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes that usually produce harmful characteristics but provide the raw material of evolution. 67
|
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|
mutual regulation | Process by which infant and caregiver communicate emotional states to each other and respond appropriately. 218
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myelination | Process of coating neurons with myelin, a fatty substance that enables faster communication between cells. 146
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nativism | Theory that human beings have an inborn capacity for language acquisition. 194
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naturalistic observation | Research method in which behavior is studied in natural settings without intervention or manipulation. 41
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|
natural, or prepared, childbirth | Method of childbirth that seeks to reduce or eliminate the use of drugs, enable both parents to participate fully, and control perceptions of pain. 113
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|
neonatal jaundice | Condition in many newborn babies caused by immaturity of the liver and evidenced by a yellowish appearance; can cause brain damage if not treated promptly. 117
|
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|
neonatal period | First 4 weeks of life, a time of transition from intrauterine dependency to independent existence. 114
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|
neonate | Newborn baby, up to 4 weeks old. 114
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neurons | Nerve cells. 142
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|
nonnormative | Characteristic of an unusual event that happens to a particular person or a typical event that happens at an unusual time of life. 16
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|
nonorganic failure to thrive | In infancy, lack of appropriate growth for no known medical cause, accompanied by poor developmental and emotional functioning. 162
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nonshared environmental effects | The unique environment in which each child grows up, consisting of distinctive influences or influences that affect one child differently than another. 80
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normative | Characteristic of an event that occurs in a similar way for most people in a group. 16
|
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|
nuclear family | Two-generational household unit consisting of one or two parents and their biological children, adopted children, or stepchildren. 11
|
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|
obesity | Extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height, and body type. 81
|
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|
object permanence | Piaget's term for the understanding that a person or object still exists when out of sight. 178
|
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|
observational learning | Learning through watching the behavior of others. 32
|
|
|
|
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) | Anxiety aroused by repetitive, intrusive thoughts, images, or impulses, often leading to compulsive ritual behaviors. 330
|
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|
operant conditioning | Learning based on association of behavior with its consequences. 31, 169
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|
operational definition | Definition stated solely in terms of the operations or procedures used to produce or measure a phenomenon. 42
|
|
|
|
oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) | Pattern of behavior, persisting into middle childhood, marked by negativity, hostility, and defiance. 330
|
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|
organismic model | Model that views human development as internally initiated by an active organism, and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively different stages. 25
|
|
|
|
organization-1or (2) | Piaget's term for the creation of categories or systems of knowledge; Mnemonic strategy of categorizing material to be remembered. 33, 343
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|
Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT8) | Group intelligence test for kindergarten through 12th grade. 344
|
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|
overt (direct) aggression | Aggression that is openly directed at its target. 304
|
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|
|
participant observation | Research method in which the observer lives with the people or participates in the activity being observed. 44
|
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|
parturition | Process of uterine, cervical, and other changes, usually lasting about 2 weeks preceding childbirth. 110
|
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|
permissive parenting | In Baumrind's terminology, parenting style emphasizing self-expression and self-regulation. 301
|
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|
personal fable | Elkind's term for conviction that one is special, unique, and not subject to the rules that govern the rest of the world. 421
|
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|
personality | The relatively consistent blend of emotions, temperament, thought, and behavior that makes each person unique. 204
|
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|
phenotype | Observable characteristics of a person. 67
|
|
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|
phonetic (code emphasis) approach | Approach to teaching reading that emphasizes decoding unfamiliar words. 352
|
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|
physical development | Growth of body and brain, including biological and physiological patterns of change in sensory capacities, motor skills, and health. 8
|
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|
Piagetian approach | Approach to the study of cognitive development that describes qualitative stages in cognitive functioning. 169
|
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|
plasticity | Modifiability of the brain through experience. 18, 147
|
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|
play therapy | Therapeutic approach that uses play to help a child cope with emotional distress. 332
|
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|
|
polygenic inheritance | Pattern of inheritance in which multiple genes at different sites on chromosomes affect a complex trait. 67
|
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|
|
postconventional morality (or morality of autonomous moral principles) | Third level in Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning in which people follow internally held moral principles and can decide among conflicting moral standards. 425
|
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|
postmature | A fetus not yet born as of 42 weeks' gestation. 125
|
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|
power assertion | Disciplinary strategy designed to discourage undesirable behavior through physical or verbal enforcement of parental control. 299
|
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|
pragmatics | Practical knowledge needed to use language for communicative purposes. 271, 350
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|
preconventional morality | First level of Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning in which control is external and rules are obeyed in order to gain rewards or avoid punishment or out of self-interest. 424
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|
prejudice | Unfavorable attitude toward members of certain groups outside one's own, especially racial or ethnic groups. 379
|
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|
prelinguistic speech | Forerunner of linguistic speech; utterance of sounds that are not words. Includes crying, cooing, babbling, and accidental and deliberate imitation of sounds without understanding their meaning. 189
|
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|
preoperational stage | In Piaget's theory, the second major stage of cognitive development, in which children become more sophisticated in their use of symbolic thought but are not yet able to use logic. 256
|
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|
pretend play | Play involving imaginary people or situations; also called fantasy play, dramatic play, or imaginary play. 257
|
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|
preterm (premature) infants | Infants born before completing the 37th week of gestation. 121
|
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|
primary sex characteristics | Organs directly related to reproduction, which enlarge and mature during adolescence. 399
|
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|
private speech | Talking aloud to oneself with no intent to communicate with others. 272
|
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|
|
procedural knowledge | Acquired skills stored in long-term memory. 423
|
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|
prosocial behavior | Any voluntary behavior intended to help others. 303
|
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|
|
protective factors | Factors that reduce the impact of potentially negative influences and tend to predict positive outcomes. 126, 388
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|
proximodistal principle | Principle that development proceeds from within to without; that is, that parts of the body near the center develop before the extremities. 89
|
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|
psychoanalytic perspective | View of human development as being shaped by unconscious forces. 27
|
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|
psychological aggression | Verbal attack by a parent that may result in psychological harm to a child. 299
|
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|
psychometric approach | Approach to the study of cognitive development that seeks to measure the quantity of intelligence a person possesses. 169
|
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|
psychosexual development | In Freudian theory, an unvarying sequence of stages of personality development during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, in which gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals. 27
|
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|
psychosocial development | (1) Pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships; (2) In Erikson's eight-stage theory, the socially and culturally influenced process of development of the ego, or self. 8, 28
|
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|
puberty | Process by which a person attains sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce. 396
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|
punishment | In operant conditioning, a process that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. 31
|
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|
qualitative change | Change in kind, structure, or organization, such as the change from nonverbal to verbal communication. 26
|
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|
qualitative research | Research that involves the interpretation of nonnumerical data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs. 39
|
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|
quantitative change | Change in number or amount, such as in height, weight, or size of vocabulary. 26
|
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|
quantitative research | Research that deals with objectively measurable data. 38
|
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|
random assignment | Assignment of participants in an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group. 47
|
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|
random selection | Selection of a sample in such a way that each person in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen. 39
|
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|
reaction range | Potential variability, depending on environmental conditions, in the expression of a hereditary trait. 77
|
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|
|
real self | Self one actually is. 283
|
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|
recall | Ability to reproduce material from memory. 266
|
|
|
|
receptive cooperation | Kochanska's term for eager willingness to cooperate harmoniously with a parent in daily interactions, including routines, chores, hygiene, and play. 224
|
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|
recessive inheritance | Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives identical recessive alleles, resulting in expression of a nondominant trait. 66
|
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|
|
reciprocal determinism | Bandura's term for bidirectional forces that affect development. 31
|
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|
|
recognition | Ability to identify a previously encountered stimulus. 266
|
|
|
|
reflex behavior | Automatic, involuntary, innate response to stimulation. 147
|
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|
|
rehearsal | Mnemonic strategy to keep an item in working memory through conscious repetition. 343
|
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|
|
reinforcement | In operant conditioning, a process that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. 31
|
|
|
|
relational (indirect or social) aggression | Aggression aimed at damaging or interfering with another person's relationships, reputation, or psychological well-being; can be overt or covert. 304
|
|
|
|
representational ability | Piaget's term for capacity to store mental images or symbols of objects and events. 176
|
|
|
|
representational mappings | In neo-Piagetian terminology, second stage in development of self-definition, in which a child makes logical connections between aspects of the self but still sees these characteristics in all-or-nothing terms. 283
|
|
|
|
representational systems | Broad, inclusive self-concepts that integrate various aspects of the self. 366
|
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|
|
resilient children | Children who weather adverse circumstances, function well despite challenges or threats, or bounce back from traumatic events. 388
|
|
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|
retrieval | Process by which information is accessed or recalled from memory storage. 266
|
|
|
|
risk factors | Conditions that increase the likelihood of a negative developmental outcome. 15
|
|
|
|
rough-and-tumble play | Vigorous play involving wrestling, hitting, and chasing, often accompanied by laughing and screaming. 320
|
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|
|
sample | Group of participants chosen to represent the entire population under study. 39
|
|
|
|
scaffolding | Temporary support to help a child master a task. 34, 270
|
|
|
|
schemes | Piaget's term for organized patterns of thought and behavior used in particular situations. 33, 173
|
|
|
|
schizophrenia | Neurological disorder marked by loss of contact with reality; hallucinations and delusions; loss of coherent, logical thought; and inappropriate emotionality. 82
|
|
|
|
school phobia | Unrealistic fear of going to school; may be a form of separation anxiety disorder or social phobia. 330
|
|
|
|
scientific method | System of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry, which includes identifying a problem to be studied, formulating a hypothesis to be tested by research, collecting data, analyzing the data, forming tentative conclusions, and disseminating findings. 39
|
|
|
|
script | General remembered outline of a familiar, repeated event, used to guide behavior. 267
|
|
|
|
secondary sex characteristics | Physiological signs of sexual maturation (such as breast development and growth of body hair) that do not involve the sex organs. 399
|
|
|
|
secular trend | Trend that can be seen only by observing several generations, such as the trend toward earlier attainment of adult height and sexual maturity, which began a century ago. 401
|
|
|
|
secure attachment | Pattern in which an infant is quickly and effectively able to find comfort from a caregiver when faced with a stressful situation. 214
|
|
|
|
self-awareness | Realization that one's existence and functioning are separate from those of other people and things. 207
|
|
|
|
self-concept | Sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one's abilities and traits. 220, 282
|
|
|
|
self-conscious emotions | Emotions, such as embarrassment, empathy, and envy, that depend on self-awareness. 207
|
|
|
|
self-definition | Cluster of characteristics used to describe oneself. 282
|
|
|
|
self-efficacy | Sense of one's capability to master challenges and achieve goals. 32
|
|
|
|
self-esteem | Judgment a person makes about his or her self-worth. 283
|
|
|
|
self-evaluative emotions | Emotions, such as pride, shame, and guilt, that depend on both self-awareness and knowledge of socially accepted standards of behavior. 207
|
|
|
|
self-regulation | A person's independent control of behavior to conform to understood social expectations. 222
|
|
|
|
sensitive periods | Times in development when a given event or its absence usually has a strong effect on development. 18
|
|
|
|
sensorimotor stage | In Piaget's theory, first stage in cognitive development, during which infants learn through senses and motor activity. 173
|
|
|
|
sensory memory | Initial, brief, temporary storage of sensory information. 266
|
|
|
|
separation anxiety | Distress shown by someone, typically an infant, when a familiar caregiver leaves. 216
|
|
|
|
separation anxiety disorder | Condition involving excessive, prolonged anxiety concerning separation from home or from people to whom a person is attached. 330
|
|
|
|
sequential study | Study design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal techniques. 49
|
|
|
|
seriation | Ability to order items along a dimension. 337
|
|
|
|
sex chromosomes | Pair of chromosomes that determines sex: XX in the normal human female, XY in the normal human male. 65
|
|
|
|
sex-linked inheritance | Pattern of inheritance in which certain characteristics carried on the X chromosome inherited from the mother are transmitted differently to her male and female offspring. 71
|
|
|
|
sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) | Diseases spread by sexual contact. 449
|
|
|
|
sexual orientation | Gender focus of consistent sexual, romantic, and affectionate interest, either heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual. 445
|
|
|
|
shaken baby syndrome | Form of maltreatment in which shaking an infant or toddler can cause brain damage, paralysis, or death. 162
|
|
|
|
single representations | In neo-Piagetian terminology, first stage in development of self-definition, in which children describe themselves in terms of individual, unconnected characteristics and in all-or-nothing terms. 282
|
|
|
|
situational compliance | Kochanska's term for obedience of a parent's orders only in the presence of signs of ongoing parental control. 224
|
|
|
|
slow-to-warm-up children | Children whose temperament is generally mild but who are hesitant about accepting new experiences. 209
|
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|
|
small-for-date (small-for-gestational-age) infants | Infants whose birth weight is less than that of 90 percent of babies of the same gestational age as a result of slow fetal growth. 121
|
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|
social capital | Family and community resources on which a person or family can draw. 354
|
|
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|
social cognition | Ability to understand that other people have mental states and to gauge their feelings and intentions. 208
|
|
|
|
social cognitive theory | Albert Bandura's expansion of social learning theory; holds that children learn gender roles through socialization. 291
|
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|
|
social construction | Concept about the nature of reality based on societally shared perceptions or assumptions. 8
|
|
|
|
social-contextual approach | Approach to the study of cognitive development that focuses on environmental influences, particularly parents and other caregivers. 169
|
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|
|
social interaction model | Model, based on Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, that proposes that children construct autobiographical memories through conversation with adults about shared events. 267
|
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|
|
socialization | Development of habits, skills, values, and motives shared by responsible, productive members of a society. 222
|
|
|
|
social learning theory | Theory that behaviors also are learned by observing and imitating models. Also called social cognitive theory. 31
|
|
|
|
social phobia | Extreme fear and/or avoidance of social situations. 330
|
|
|
|
social promotion | Policy of automatically promoting children even if they do not meet academic standards. 357
|
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|
|
social referencing | Understanding an ambiguous situation by seeking out another person's perception of it. 218
|
|
|
|
social speech | Speech intended to be understood by a listener. 271
|
|
|
|
sociocultural theory | Vygotsky's theory of how contextual factors affect children's development. 33
|
|
|
|
socioeconomic status (SES) | Combination of economic and social factors, including income, education, and occupation, that describe an individual or family. 14
|
|
|
|
spermarche | A boy's first ejaculation. 401
|
|
|
|
spontaneous abortion | Natural expulsion from the uterus of a embryo that cannot survive outside the womb; also called miscarriage. 90
|
|
|
|
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale | Individual intelligence test for ages 2 and up, used to measure knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory. 268
|
|
|
|
state of arousal | Infant's physiological and behavioral status at a given moment in the periodic daily cycle of wakefulness, sleep, and activity. 119
|
|
|
|
stillbirth | Death of a fetus at or after the 20th week of gestation. 125
|
|
|
|
still-face paradigm | Research procedure used to measure mutual regulation in infants 2 to 9 months old. 218
|
|
|
|
storage | Retention of information in memory for future use. 265
|
|
|
|
stranger anxiety | Wariness of strange people and places, shown by some infants from age 6 to 12 months. 216
|
|
|
|
Strange Situation | Laboratory technique used to study infant attachment. 213
|
|
|
|
stuttering | Involuntary, frequent repetition or prolongation of sounds or syllables. 327
|
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|
|
substance abuse | Repeated, harmful use of a substance, usually alcohol or other drugs. 409
|
|
|
|
substance dependence | Addiction (physical or psychological, or both) to a harmful substance. 409
|
|
|
|
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) | Sudden and unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant. 157
|
|
|
|
symbolic function | Piaget's term for ability to use mental representations (words, numbers, or images) to which a child has attached meaning. 257
|
|
|
|
syntax | Rules for forming sentences in a particular language. 193
|
|
|
|
systems of action | Increasingly complex combinations of motor skills that permit a wider or more precise range of movement and more control of the environment. 151, 242
|
|
|
|
tacit knowledge | Sternberg's term for information that is not formally taught or openly expressed but is necessary to get ahead.
|
|
|
|
telegraphic speech | Early form of sentence use consisting of only a few essential words. 193
|
|
|
|
temperament | Characteristic disposition or style of approaching and reacting to situations. 82, 209
|
|
|
|
teratogen | Environmental agent, such as a virus, a drug, or radiation, that can interfere with normal prenatal development and cause developmental abnormalities. 93
|
|
|
|
theory | Coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to organize, explain, and predict data. 24
|
|
|
|
theory of mind | Awareness and understanding of mental processes. 261
|
|
|
|
theory of multiple intelligences | Gardner's theory that there are eight distinct forms of intelligence. 347
|
|
|
|
theory of sexual selection | Darwinian theory, which holds that selection of sexual partners is influenced by the differing reproductive pressures that early men and women confronted in the struggle for survival of the species. 288
|
|
|
|
transduction | In Piaget's terminology, preoperational child's tendency to mentally link particular experiences, whether or not there is logically a causal relationship. 258
|
|
|
|
transitive inference | Understanding the relationship between two objects by knowing the relationship of each to a third object. 337
|
|
|
|
triarchic theory of intelligence | Sternberg's theory describing three types of intelligence: componential (analytical ability), experiential (insight and originality), and contextual (practical thinking). 348
|
|
|
|
two-way (dual-language) learning | Approach to second-language education in which English speakers and non-English speakers learn together in their own and each other's languages. 351
|
|
|
|
ultrasound | Prenatal medical procedure using high-frequency sound waves to detect the outline of a fetus and its movements, used to determine whether a pregnancy is progressing normally. 91
|
|
|
|
universal preschool | A national system for early care and education that makes access to preschool similar to kindergarten by using the public schools. 277
|
|
|
|
violation-of-expectations | Research method in which dishabituation to a stimulus that conflicts with experience is taken as evidence that an infant recognizes the new stimulus as surprising. 185
|
|
|
|
visible imitation | Imitation with parts of one's body that one can see. 177
|
|
|
|
visual cliff | Apparatus designed to give an illusion of depth and used to assess depth perception in infants. 154
|
|
|
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visual guidance | Use of the eyes to guide movements of the hands or other parts of the body. 153
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visually based retrieval | Process of retrieving the sound of a printed word on seeing the word as a whole. 352
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visual preference | Tendency of infants to spend more time looking at one sight than another. 181
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visual recognition memory | Ability to distinguish a familiar visual stimulus from an unfamiliar stimulus when shown both at the same time. 181
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Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III) | Individual intelligence test for schoolchildren that yields verbal and performance scores as well as a combined score. 344
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Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Revised (WPPSI-III) | Individual intelligence test for children ages 2½ to 7 that yields verbal and performance scores as well as a combined score. 268
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whole-language approach | Approach to teaching reading that emphasizes visual retrieval and use of contextual clues. 352
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withdrawal of love | Disciplinary strategy that involves ignoring, isolating, or showing dislike for a child. 299
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working memory | Short-term storage of information being actively processed. 188, 266
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zone of proximal development (ZPD) | Vygotsky's term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help. 34, 270
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zygote | One-celled organism resulting from fertilization. 59
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