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acceleration  Approach to educating the gifted that moves them through the curriculum at an unusually rapid pace. 362
accommodation  Piaget's term for changes in a cognitive structure to include new information. 33
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)  Viral disease that undermines effective functioning of the immune system. 99
acute medical conditions  Occasional illnesses that last a short time. 325
adaptation  Piaget's term for adjustment to new information about the environment. 33
adolescence  Developmental transition between childhood and adulthood entailing major physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes. 396
adolescent growth spurt  Sharp increase in height and weight that precedes sexual maturity. 400
adolescent rebellion  Pattern of emotional turmoil, characteristic of a minority of adolescents that may involve conflict with family, alienation from adult society, reckless behavior, and rejection of adult values. 454
alleles  Two or more alternative forms of a gene that can occupy the same position on paired chromosomes and affect the same trait. 66
altruism  Motivation to help others without expectation of reward; may involve self-denial or self-sacrifice. 303
altruistic behavior  Activity intended to help another person with no expectation of reward. 207
ambivalent (resistant) attachment  Pattern in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset during his or her absence, and both seeks and resists contact on his or her return. 214
animism  Tendency to attribute life to objects that are not alive. 258
anorexia nervosa  Eating disorder characterized by self-starvation and extreme weight loss. 407
A-not-B error  Tendency for 8- to 12-month-old infants to search for a hidden object in a place where they previously found it rather than in the place where they most recently saw it being hidden. 178
anoxia  Lack of oxygen, which may cause brain damage. 116
Apgar scale  Standard measurement of a newborn's condition; it assesses appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, and respiration. 117
art therapy  Therapeutic approach that allows a person to express troubled feelings without words, using a variety of art materials and media. 332
assimilation  Piaget's term for incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive structure. 33
assisted reproductive technology (ART)  Methods used to achieve conception through artificial means. 60
asthma  A chronic respiratory disease characterized by sudden attacks of coughing, wheezing, and difficulty in breathing. 326
attachment  Reciprocal, enduring tie between two people—especially between infant and caregiver—each of whom contributes to the quality of the relationship. 213
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)  Syndrome characterized by persistent inattention and distractibility, impulsivity, low tolerance for frustration, and inappropriate overactivity. 359
authoritarian parenting  In Baumrind's terminology, parenting style emphasizing control and obedience. 301
authoritative parenting  In Baumrind's terminology, parenting style blending warmth and respect for a child's individuality with an effort to instill social values. 301
autobiographical memory  A type of episodic memory of distinctive experiences that form a person's life history. 267
autonomy versus shame and doubt  Erikson's second stage in psychosocial development, in which children achieve a balance between self-determination and control by others. 221
autosomes  In humans, the 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual expression. 65
avoidant attachment  Pattern in which an infant rarely cries when separated from the primary caregiver and avoids contact on his or her return. 214
basic trust versus basic mistrust  Erikson's first stage in psychosocial development, in which infants develop a sense of the reliability of people and objects. 212
Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development  Standardized test of infants' and toddlers' mental and motor development. 171
behavioral genetics  Quantitative study of relative hereditary and environmental influences on behavior. 76
behaviorism  Learning theory that emphasizes the predictable role of environment in causing observable behavior. 29
behaviorist approach  Approach to the study of cognitive development that is concerned with the basic mechanics of learning. 169
behavior therapy  Therapy that uses principles of learning theory to eliminate undesirable behaviors. 331
bilingual  Fluent in two languages. 351
bilingual education  System of teaching non-English-speaking children in their native language while they learn English and later switching to all-English instruction. 351
bioecological theory  Bronfenbrenner's approach to understanding processes and contexts of child development that identifies five levels of environmental influence. 35
body image  Descriptive and evaluative beliefs about one's appearance. 322
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)  Neurological and behavioral test to measure a neonate's responses to the environment. 118
bulimia nervosa  Eating disorder in which a person regularly eats huge quantities of food and then purges the body by laxatives, induced vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise. 408
bullying  Aggression deliberately and persistently directed against a particular target, or victim, typically one who is weak, vulnerable, and defenseless. 385
canalization  Limitation on variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics. 78
case study  Study of a single subject, such as an individual or family. 43
cell death  In brain development, normal elimination of excess cells to achieve more efficient functioning. 145
central executive  In Baddeley's model, element of working memory that controls the processing of information. 266
central nervous system  Brain and spinal cord. 140
centration  In Piaget's theory, tendency of preoperational children to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others. 260
cephalocaudal principle  Principle that development proceeds in a head-to-tail direction; that is, that upper parts of the body develop before lower parts of the trunk. 89
cesarean delivery  Delivery of a baby by surgical removal from the uterus. 112
child development  Scientific study of processes of change and stability in children from conception through adolescence. 6
child-directed speech (CDS)  Form of speech often used in talking to babies or toddlers; includes slow, simplified speech, a high-pitched tone, exaggerated vowel sounds, short words and sentences, and much repetition; also called parentese. 197
childhood depression  Mood disorder characterized by such symptoms as a prolonged sense of friendlessness, inability to have fun or concentrate, fatigue, extreme activity or apathy, feelings of worthlessness, weight change, physical complaints, and thoughts of death or suicide. 331
chromosomes  Coils of DNA that consist of genes. 65
chronic medical conditions  Long-lasting or recurrent physical, developmental, behavioral, and/or emotional conditions that require special health services. 326
chronosystem  Bronfenbrenner's term for effects of time on other developmental systems. 36
circular reactions  Piaget's term for processes by which an infant learns to reproduce desired occurrences originally discovered by chance. 174
classical conditioning  Learning based on association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a particular response with another stimulus that does elicit the response. 30, 169
class inclusion  Understanding the relationship between a whole and its parts. 337
code mixing  Use of elements of two languages, sometimes in the same utterance, by young children in households where both languages are spoken. 197
code switching  Changing one's speech to match the situation, as in people who are bilingual. 197
cognitive development  Pattern of change in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. 8
cognitive neuroscience  Study of links between neural processes and cognitive abilities. 42
cognitive neuroscience approach  Approach to the study of cognitive development that links brain processes with cognitive ones. 169
cognitive perspective  Perspective that looks at the development of mental processes such as thinking. 32
cognitive-stage theory  Piaget's theory that children's cognitive development advances in a series of four stages involving qualitatively distinct types of mental operations. 32
cohort  A group of people born at about the same time. 16
commitment  Marcia's term for personal investment in an occupation or system of beliefs. 441
committed compliance  Kochanska's term for wholehearted obedience of a parent's orders without reminders or lapses. 224
componential element  Sternberg's term for the analytic aspect of intelligence. 348
conceptual knowledge  Acquired interpretive understandings stored in long-term memory. 423
concordant  Term describing the tendency of twins to share the same trait or disorder. 76
concrete operations  The third stage of Piagetian cognitive development (approximately from age 7 to 12), during which children develop logical but not abstract thinking. 336
conduct disorder (CD)  Repetitive, persistent pattern of aggressive, antisocial behavior violating societal norms or the rights of others. 330
conscience  Internal standards of behavior, which usually control one's conduct and produce emotional discomfort when violated. 224
conservation  Piaget's term for awareness that two objects that are equal according to a certain measure remain equal in the face of perceptual alteration so long as nothing has been added to or taken away from either object. 260
constructive play  In Smilansky's terminology, second cognitive level of play, involving use of objects or materials to make something; also called object play. 295
contextual element  Sternberg's term for the practical aspect of intelligence. 348
contextual element  Sternberg's term for the practical aspect of intelligence. 384
contextual perspective  View of child development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context. 35
control group  In an experiment, a group of people, similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive the treatment under study. 46
conventional morality (or morality of conventional role conformity)  Second level in Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning in which standards of authority figures are internalized. 425
convergent thinking  Thinking aimed at finding the one right answer to a problem. 362
coregulation  Transitional stage in the control of behavior in which parents exercise general supervision and children exercise moment-to-moment self-regulation. 368
corporal punishment  Use of physical force with the intention of causing pain but not injury so as to correct or control behavior. 299
correlational study  Research design intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists. 44
crisis  Marcia's term for a period of conscious decision making related to identity formation. 441
critical period  Specific time when a given event or its absence has a profound and specific impact on development. 18
cross-modal transfer  Ability to use information gained by one sense to guide another. 182
cross-sectional study  Study designed to assess age-related differences, in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion. 48
cultural socialization  Parental practices that teach children about their racial/ethnic heritage and promote cultural practices and cultural pride. 445
culture  A society's or group's total way of life, including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language, and physical products—all learned behavior passed on from adults to children. 12
culture-fair test  An intelligence test that deals with experiences common to various cultures, in an attempt to avoid cultural bias. 347
culture-free test  An intelligence test that, if it were possible to design, would have no culturally linked content. 347
culture-relevant test  An intelligence test that takes into account the adaptive tasks children face in their culture. 347
decenter  In Piaget's terminology, to think simultaneously about several aspects of a situation. 260
declarative knowledge  Acquired factual knowledge stored in long-term memory. 423
decoding  Process of phonetic analysis by which a printed word is converted to spoken form before retrieval from long-term memory. 351
deductive reasoning  Type of logical reasoning that moves from a general premise about a class to a conclusion about a particular member or members of the class. 337
deferred imitation  Piaget's term for reproduction of an observed behavior after the passage of time by calling up a stored symbol of it. 177
Denver Developmental Screening Test  Screening test given to children age 1 month to 6 years to determine whether they are developing normally. 152
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)  Chemical that carries inherited instructions for the development of all cellular forms of life. 64
dependent variable  In an experiment, the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable. 46
depth perception  Ability to perceive objects and surfaces in three dimensions. 154
diabetes  One of the most common diseases of childhood. It is characterized by high levels of glucose in the blood as a result of defective insulin production, ineffective insulin action, or both. 326
differentiation  Process by which cells acquire specialized structure and function. 145
difficult children  Children with irritable temperament, irregular biological rhythms, and intense emotional responses. 209
discipline  Methods of molding children's character and of teaching them to exercise self-control and engage in acceptable behavior. 298
dishabituation  Increase in responsiveness after presentation of a new stimulus. 180
disorganized-disoriented attachment  Pattern in which an infant, after separation from the primary caregiver, shows contradictory behaviors on his or her return. 214
divergent thinking  Thinking that produces a variety of fresh, diverse possibilities. 362
dominant inheritance  Pattern of inheritance in which, when a child receives different alleles, only the dominant one is expressed. 66
Down syndrome  Chromosomal disorder characterized by moderate-to-severe mental retardation and by such physical signs as a downward-sloping skin fold at the inner corners of the eyes. 72
dramatic play  Play involving imaginary people or situations; also called fantasy play, pretend play, or imaginative play. 295
drug therapy  Administration of drugs to treat emotional disorders. 332
dual representation hypothesis  Proposal that children under age 3 have difficulty grasping spatial relationships because of the need to keep more than one mental representation in mind at the same time. 179
dynamic systems theory (DST)  Thelen's theory that holds that motor development is a dynamic process of active coordination of multiple systems within the infant in relation to the environment. 155
dynamic tests  Tests based on Vygotsky's theory that emphasize potential rather than past learning. 349
dyslexia  Developmental disorder in which reading achievement is substantially lower than predicted by IQ or age. 358
early intervention  Systematic process of providing services to help families meet young children's developmental needs. 172
easy children  Children with a generally happy temperament, regular biological rhythms, and a readiness to accept new experiences. 209
ecological theory of perception  Theory developed by Eleanor and James Gibson that describes developing motor and perceptual abilities as interdependent parts of a functional system that guides behavior in varying contexts. 154
egocentrism  Piaget's term for an inability to consider another person's point of view; a characteristic of young children's thought. 208, 260
elaboration  Mnemonic strategy of making mental associations involving items to be remembered. 343
electronic fetal monitoring  Mechanical monitoring of fetal heartbeat during labor and delivery. 111
elicited imitation  Research method in which infants or toddlers are induced to imitate a specific series of actions they have seen but not necessarily done before. 177
embryonic stage  Second stage of prenatal development (2 to 8 weeks), characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs. 90
emergent literacy  Preschoolers' development of skills, knowledge, and attitudes that underlie reading and writing. 273
emerging adulthood  Proposed transitional period between adolescence and adulthood, usually extending from the late teens through the mid-20s. 466
emotions  Subjective reactions to experience that are associated with physiological and behavioral changes. 205
empathy  Ability to put oneself in another person's place and feel what the other person feels. 208
encoding  Process by which information is prepared for long-term storage and later retrieval. 265
English-immersion approach  Approach to teaching English as a second language in which instruction is presented only in English. 351
enrichment  Approach to educating the gifted that broadens and deepens knowledge and skills through extra activities, projects, field trips, or mentoring. 362
enuresis  Repeated urination in clothing or in bed. 240
environment  Totality of nonhereditary, or experiential, influences on development. 10
epigenesis  Mechanism that turns genes on or off and determines functions of body cells. 68
episodic memory  Long-term memory of specific experiences or events, linked to time and place. 267
equilibration  Piaget's term for the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements; achieved through a balance between assimilation and accommodation. 33
ethnic gloss  Overgeneralization about an ethnic or cultural group that blurs or obscures variations within the group or overlaps with other such groups. 14
ethnic group  A group united by ancestry, race, religion, language, or national origin that contributes to a sense of shared identity. 12
ethnographic study  In-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation. 44
ethology  Study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the species. 36
evolutionary psychology  Application of Darwinian principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to human psychology. 37
evolutionary/sociobiological perspective  View of human development that focuses on evolutionary and biological bases of social behavior. 36
executive function  Conscious control of thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish goals or solve problems. 266, 341
exosystem  Bronfenbrenner's term for linkages between two or more settings, one of which does not contain the child. 36
experiential element  Sternberg's term for the insightful aspect of intelligence. 348
experiment  Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other. 46
experimental group  In an experiment, the group receiving the treatment under study. 46
explicit memory  Intentional and conscious memory, generally of facts, names, and events; sometimes called declarative memory. 188
extended family  Multigenerational kinship network of parents, children, and other relatives, sometimes living together in an extended-family household. 11
externalizing behaviors  Behaviors by which a child acts out emotional difficulties; for example, aggression or hostility. 368
external memory aids  Mnemonic strategies using something outside the person. 342
family therapy  Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees the whole family together to analyze patterns of family functioning. 331
fast mapping  Process by which a child absorbs the meaning of a new word after hearing it once or twice in conversation. 270
fertilization  Union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote; also called conception. 59
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)  Combination of mental, motor, and developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy. 96
fetal stage  Final stage of prenatal development (from 8 weeks to birth), characterized by increased differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size. 91
fine motor skills  Physical skills that involve the small muscles and eye-hand coordination. 152, 241
foreclosure  Identity status, described by Marcia, in which a person who has not spent time considering alternatives (that is, has not been in crisis) is committed to other people's plans for his or her life. 442
formal games with rules  Organized games with known procedures and penalties. 295
formal operations  In Piaget's theory, final stage of cognitive development, characterized by the ability to think abstractly. 418
functional play  In Smilansky's terminology, lowest cognitive level of play, involving repetitive muscular movements; also called locomotor play. 295
gender  Significance of being male or female. 225
gender constancy  Awareness that one will always be male or female. Also called sex-category constancy. 289
gender identity  Awareness, developed in early childhood, that one is male or female. 286
gender roles  Behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills, and traits that a culture considers appropriate for each sex; differs for males and females. 287
gender-schema theory  Theory, proposed by Bem, that children socialize themselves in their gender roles by developing a mentally organized network of information about what it means to be male or female in a particular culture. 290
gender segregation  Tendency to select playmates of one's own gender. 297
gender stereotypes  Preconceived generalizations about male or female role behavior. 287
gender-typing  Socialization process by which children, at an early age, learn appropriate gender roles. 226, 287
generalized anxiety disorder  Anxiety not focused on any single target. 330
generic memory  Memory that produces scripts of familiar routines to guide behavior. 267
genes  Small segments of DNA located in definite positions on particular chromosomes; functional units of heredity. 65
genetic code  Sequence of bases within the DNA molecule; a set of rules that govern the formation of proteins that determine the structure and functions of living cells. 65
genetic counseling  Clinical service that advises prospective parents of their probable risk of having children with hereditary defects. 74
genotype  Genetic makeup of a person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics. 67
genotype–environment correlation  Tendency of certain genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each other; may be passive, reactive (evocative), or active. Also called genotype–environment covariance. 79
genotype–environment interaction  Effect of the interaction between genes and the environment on phenotypic variation. 79
germinal stage  First 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division, increasing complexity and differentiation, and implantation in the wall of the uterus. 89
gestation  Period of development between conception and birth. 86
gestational age  Age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother's last menstrual cycle. 86
goodness of fit  Appropriateness of environ-mental demands and constraints to a child's temperament. 211
gross motor skills  Physical skills that involve the large muscles. 152, 241
guided participation  Participation of an adult in a child's activity in a manner that helps to structure the activity and to bring the child's understanding of it closer to that of the adult. 188
habituation  Type of learning in which familiarity with a stimulus reduces, slows, or stops a response. 180
handedness  Preference for using a particular hand. 243
haptic perception  Ability to acquire information about properties of objects, such as size, weight, and texture, by handling them. 154
heredity  Inborn characteristics inherited from the biological parents. 10
heritability  Statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait within a given population at a particular time. 76
heterozygous  Possessing differing alleles for a trait. 66
historical generation  A group of people strongly influenced by a major historical event during their formative period. 16
holophrase  Single word that conveys a complete thought. 192
Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME)  Instrument designed to measure the influence of the home environment on children's cognitive growth. 171
homozygous  Possessing two identical alleles for a trait. 66
horizontal décalage  Piaget's term for an inability to transfer learning about one type of conservation to other types, which causes a child to master different types of conservation tasks at different ages. 338
hostile aggression  Aggressive behavior intended to hurt another person. 382
hostile attribution bias  Tendency for individuals to perceive others as trying to hurt them and to strike out in retaliation or self-defense. 383
human genome  The complete sequence of genes in the human body. 65
hypertension  High blood pressure. 326
hypotheses  Possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of research. 24
hypothetical-deductive reasoning  Ability, believed by Piaget to accompany the stage of formal operations, to develop, consider, and test hypotheses. 419
ideal self  Self one would like to be. 283
identification  In Freudian theory, process by which a young child adopts characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the parent of the same sex. 289
identity  In Erikson's terminology, a coherent conception of the self made up of goals, values, and beliefs to which a person is solidly committed. 440
identity achievement  Identity status, described by Marcia, that is characterized by commitment to choices made following a crisis, a period spent in exploring alternatives. 441
identity diffusion  Identity status, described by Marcia, that is characterized by absence of commitment and lack of serious consideration of alternatives. 443
identity statuses  Marcia's term for states of ego development that depend on the presence or absence of crisis and commitment. 441
identity versus identity confusion  Erikson's fifth stage of psychosocial development, in which an adolescent seeks to develop a coherent sense of self, including the role she or he is to play in society. Also called identity versus role confusion. 440
imaginary audience  Elkind's term for observer who exists only in an adolescent's mind and is as concerned with the adolescent's thoughts and actions as the adolescent is. 421
implicit memory  Unconscious recall, generally of habits and skills; sometimes called procedural memory. 187
imprinting  Instinctive form of learning in which, during a critical period in early development, a young animal forms an attachment to the first moving object it sees, usually the mother. 18, 127
incomplete dominance  Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives two different alleles, resulting in partial expression of a trait. 71
independent variable  In an experiment, the condition over which the experimenter has direct control. 46
individual differences  Differences among children in characteristics, influences, or developmental outcomes. 9
individual psychotherapy  Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees a troubled person one-on-one. 331
individuation  Adolescent's struggle for autonomy and differentiation, or personal identity. 455
inductive reasoning  Type of logical reasoning that moves from particular observations about members of a class to a general conclusion about that class. 337
inductive techniques  Disciplinary techniques designed to induce desirable behavior by appealing to a child's sense of reason and fairness. 299
industry versus inferiority  Erikson's fourth crisis of psychosocial development, in which children must learn the productive skills their culture requires or else face feelings of inferiority. 366
infant mortality rate  Proportion of babies born alive who die within the 1st year. 157
infertility  Inability to conceive after 12 months of trying. 59
information-processing approach  Approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information. 34, 169
initiative versus guilt  Erikson's third stage in psychosocial development, in which children balance the urge to pursue goals with moral reservations that may prevent carrying them out. 285
instrumental aggression  Aggressive behavior used as a means of achieving a goal. 304, 382
integration  Process by which neurons coordinate the activities of muscle groups. 145
intellectual disability  Significantly subnormal cognitive functioning. Also referred to as cognitive disability or mental retardation. 358
intelligent behavior  Behavior that is goal oriented and adaptive to circumstances and conditions of life. 170
internalization  During socialization, process by which children accept societal standards of conduct as their own. 222
internalizing behaviors  Behaviors by which emotional problems are turned inward; for example, anxiety or depression. 368
invisible imitation  Imitation with parts of one's body that one cannot see. 177
IQ (intelligence quotient) tests  Psychometric tests that seek to measure intelligence by comparing a test-taker's performance with standardized norms. 170
irreversibility  Piaget's term for a preoperational child's failure to understand that an operation can go in two or more directions. 261
kangaroo care  Method of skin-to-skin contact in which a newborn is laid face down between the mother's breasts. 123
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC-II)  Nontraditional individual intelligence test designed to provide fair assessments of minority children and children with disabilities. 349
laboratory observation  Research method in which all participants are observed under the same controlled conditions. 41
language  Communication system based on words and grammar. 189
language acquisition device (LAD)  In Chomsky's terminology, an inborn mechanism that enables children to infer linguistic rules from the language they hear. 194
lateralization  Tendency of each of the brain's hemispheres to have specialized functions. 142
learning disabilities (LDs)  Disorders that interfere with specific aspects of learning and school achievement. 358
learning perspective  View of human development that holds that changes in behavior result from experience. 29
linguistic speech  Verbal expression designed to convey meaning. 192
literacy  Ability to read and write. 198
longitudinal study  Study designed to assess changes in a sample over time. 48
long-term memory  Storage of virtually unlimited capacity that holds information for long periods. 266
low-birth-weight babies  Infants who weight less than 5½ pounds (2,500 grams) at birth because of prematurity or being small-for-date. 121
macrosystem  Bronfenbrenner's term for a society's overall cultural patterns, including values, customs, and social systems. 36
maturation  Unfolding of a universal natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes. 11
mechanistic model  Model that views human development as a series of predictable responses to stimuli. 25
menarche  A girl's first menstruation. 401
mesosystem  Bronfenbrenner's term for linkages between two or more microsystems. 36
metacognition  Awareness of one's own mental processes. 352
metamemory  Understanding of processes of memory. 342
microsystem  Bronfenbrenner's term for a setting in which a child interacts with others on an everyday, face-to-face basis. 36
mirror neurons  Neurons that fire when a person does something or observes someone else doing the same thing. 208
mnemonic strategies  Techniques to aid memory. 342
moratorium  Identity status, described by Marcia, in which a person is considering alternatives (in crisis) and seems headed for commitment. 442
mother-infant bond  Mother's feeling of close, caring connection with her newborn. 127
multifactorial transmission  Combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain complex traits. 68
mutations  Permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes that usually produce harmful characteristics but provide the raw material of evolution. 67
mutual regulation  Process by which infant and caregiver communicate emotional states to each other and respond appropriately. 218
myelination  Process of coating neurons with myelin, a fatty substance that enables faster communication between cells. 146
nativism  Theory that human beings have an inborn capacity for language acquisition. 194
naturalistic observation  Research method in which behavior is studied in natural settings without intervention or manipulation. 41
natural, or prepared, childbirth  Method of childbirth that seeks to reduce or eliminate the use of drugs, enable both parents to participate fully, and control perceptions of pain. 113
neonatal jaundice  Condition in many newborn babies caused by immaturity of the liver and evidenced by a yellowish appearance; can cause brain damage if not treated promptly. 117
neonatal period  First 4 weeks of life, a time of transition from intrauterine dependency to independent existence. 114
neonate  Newborn baby, up to 4 weeks old. 114
neurons  Nerve cells. 142
nonnormative  Characteristic of an unusual event that happens to a particular person or a typical event that happens at an unusual time of life. 16
nonorganic failure to thrive  In infancy, lack of appropriate growth for no known medical cause, accompanied by poor developmental and emotional functioning. 162
nonshared environmental effects  The unique environment in which each child grows up, consisting of distinctive influences or influences that affect one child differently than another. 80
normative  Characteristic of an event that occurs in a similar way for most people in a group. 16
nuclear family  Two-generational household unit consisting of one or two parents and their biological children, adopted children, or stepchildren. 11
obesity  Extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height, and body type. 81
object permanence  Piaget's term for the understanding that a person or object still exists when out of sight. 178
observational learning  Learning through watching the behavior of others. 32
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)  Anxiety aroused by repetitive, intrusive thoughts, images, or impulses, often leading to compulsive ritual behaviors. 330
operant conditioning  Learning based on association of behavior with its consequences. 31, 169
operational definition  Definition stated solely in terms of the operations or procedures used to produce or measure a phenomenon. 42
oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)  Pattern of behavior, persisting into middle childhood, marked by negativity, hostility, and defiance. 330
organismic model  Model that views human development as internally initiated by an active organism, and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively different stages. 25
organization-1or (2)  Piaget's term for the creation of categories or systems of knowledge; Mnemonic strategy of categorizing material to be remembered. 33, 343
Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT8)  Group intelligence test for kindergarten through 12th grade. 344
overt (direct) aggression  Aggression that is openly directed at its target. 304
participant observation  Research method in which the observer lives with the people or participates in the activity being observed. 44
parturition  Process of uterine, cervical, and other changes, usually lasting about 2 weeks preceding childbirth. 110
permissive parenting  In Baumrind's terminology, parenting style emphasizing self-expression and self-regulation. 301
personal fable  Elkind's term for conviction that one is special, unique, and not subject to the rules that govern the rest of the world. 421
personality  The relatively consistent blend of emotions, temperament, thought, and behavior that makes each person unique. 204
phenotype  Observable characteristics of a person. 67
phonetic (code emphasis) approach  Approach to teaching reading that emphasizes decoding unfamiliar words. 352
physical development  Growth of body and brain, including biological and physiological patterns of change in sensory capacities, motor skills, and health. 8
Piagetian approach  Approach to the study of cognitive development that describes qualitative stages in cognitive functioning. 169
plasticity  Modifiability of the brain through experience. 18, 147
play therapy  Therapeutic approach that uses play to help a child cope with emotional distress. 332
polygenic inheritance  Pattern of inheritance in which multiple genes at different sites on chromosomes affect a complex trait. 67
postconventional morality (or morality of autonomous moral principles)  Third level in Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning in which people follow internally held moral principles and can decide among conflicting moral standards. 425
postmature  A fetus not yet born as of 42 weeks' gestation. 125
power assertion  Disciplinary strategy designed to discourage undesirable behavior through physical or verbal enforcement of parental control. 299
pragmatics  Practical knowledge needed to use language for communicative purposes. 271, 350
preconventional morality  First level of Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning in which control is external and rules are obeyed in order to gain rewards or avoid punishment or out of self-interest. 424
prejudice  Unfavorable attitude toward members of certain groups outside one's own, especially racial or ethnic groups. 379
prelinguistic speech  Forerunner of linguistic speech; utterance of sounds that are not words. Includes crying, cooing, babbling, and accidental and deliberate imitation of sounds without understanding their meaning. 189
preoperational stage  In Piaget's theory, the second major stage of cognitive development, in which children become more sophisticated in their use of symbolic thought but are not yet able to use logic. 256
pretend play  Play involving imaginary people or situations; also called fantasy play, dramatic play, or imaginary play. 257
preterm (premature) infants  Infants born before completing the 37th week of gestation. 121
primary sex characteristics  Organs directly related to reproduction, which enlarge and mature during adolescence. 399
private speech  Talking aloud to oneself with no intent to communicate with others. 272
procedural knowledge  Acquired skills stored in long-term memory. 423
prosocial behavior  Any voluntary behavior intended to help others. 303
protective factors  Factors that reduce the impact of potentially negative influences and tend to predict positive outcomes. 126, 388
proximodistal principle  Principle that development proceeds from within to without; that is, that parts of the body near the center develop before the extremities. 89
psychoanalytic perspective  View of human development as being shaped by unconscious forces. 27
psychological aggression  Verbal attack by a parent that may result in psychological harm to a child. 299
psychometric approach  Approach to the study of cognitive development that seeks to measure the quantity of intelligence a person possesses. 169
psychosexual development  In Freudian theory, an unvarying sequence of stages of personality development during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, in which gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals. 27
psychosocial development  (1) Pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships; (2) In Erikson's eight-stage theory, the socially and culturally influenced process of development of the ego, or self. 8, 28
puberty  Process by which a person attains sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce. 396
punishment  In operant conditioning, a process that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. 31
qualitative change  Change in kind, structure, or organization, such as the change from nonverbal to verbal communication. 26
qualitative research  Research that involves the interpretation of nonnumerical data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs. 39
quantitative change  Change in number or amount, such as in height, weight, or size of vocabulary. 26
quantitative research  Research that deals with objectively measurable data. 38
random assignment  Assignment of participants in an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group. 47
random selection  Selection of a sample in such a way that each person in a population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen. 39
reaction range  Potential variability, depending on environmental conditions, in the expression of a hereditary trait. 77
real self  Self one actually is. 283
recall  Ability to reproduce material from memory. 266
receptive cooperation  Kochanska's term for eager willingness to cooperate harmoniously with a parent in daily interactions, including routines, chores, hygiene, and play. 224
recessive inheritance  Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives identical recessive alleles, resulting in expression of a nondominant trait. 66
reciprocal determinism  Bandura's term for bidirectional forces that affect development. 31
recognition  Ability to identify a previously encountered stimulus. 266
reflex behavior  Automatic, involuntary, innate response to stimulation. 147
rehearsal  Mnemonic strategy to keep an item in working memory through conscious repetition. 343
reinforcement  In operant conditioning, a process that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. 31
relational (indirect or social) aggression  Aggression aimed at damaging or interfering with another person's relationships, reputation, or psychological well-being; can be overt or covert. 304
representational ability  Piaget's term for capacity to store mental images or symbols of objects and events. 176
representational mappings  In neo-Piagetian terminology, second stage in development of self-definition, in which a child makes logical connections between aspects of the self but still sees these characteristics in all-or-nothing terms. 283
representational systems  Broad, inclusive self-concepts that integrate various aspects of the self. 366
resilient children  Children who weather adverse circumstances, function well despite challenges or threats, or bounce back from traumatic events. 388
retrieval  Process by which information is accessed or recalled from memory storage. 266
risk factors  Conditions that increase the likelihood of a negative developmental outcome. 15
rough-and-tumble play  Vigorous play involving wrestling, hitting, and chasing, often accompanied by laughing and screaming. 320
sample  Group of participants chosen to represent the entire population under study. 39
scaffolding  Temporary support to help a child master a task. 34, 270
schemes  Piaget's term for organized patterns of thought and behavior used in particular situations. 33, 173
schizophrenia  Neurological disorder marked by loss of contact with reality; hallucinations and delusions; loss of coherent, logical thought; and inappropriate emotionality. 82
school phobia  Unrealistic fear of going to school; may be a form of separation anxiety disorder or social phobia. 330
scientific method  System of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry, which includes identifying a problem to be studied, formulating a hypothesis to be tested by research, collecting data, analyzing the data, forming tentative conclusions, and disseminating findings. 39
script  General remembered outline of a familiar, repeated event, used to guide behavior. 267
secondary sex characteristics  Physiological signs of sexual maturation (such as breast development and growth of body hair) that do not involve the sex organs. 399
secular trend  Trend that can be seen only by observing several generations, such as the trend toward earlier attainment of adult height and sexual maturity, which began a century ago. 401
secure attachment  Pattern in which an infant is quickly and effectively able to find comfort from a caregiver when faced with a stressful situation. 214
self-awareness  Realization that one's existence and functioning are separate from those of other people and things. 207
self-concept  Sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one's abilities and traits. 220, 282
self-conscious emotions  Emotions, such as embarrassment, empathy, and envy, that depend on self-awareness. 207
self-definition  Cluster of characteristics used to describe oneself. 282
self-efficacy  Sense of one's capability to master challenges and achieve goals. 32
self-esteem  Judgment a person makes about his or her self-worth. 283
self-evaluative emotions  Emotions, such as pride, shame, and guilt, that depend on both self-awareness and knowledge of socially accepted standards of behavior. 207
self-regulation  A person's independent control of behavior to conform to understood social expectations. 222
sensitive periods  Times in development when a given event or its absence usually has a strong effect on development. 18
sensorimotor stage  In Piaget's theory, first stage in cognitive development, during which infants learn through senses and motor activity. 173
sensory memory  Initial, brief, temporary storage of sensory information. 266
separation anxiety  Distress shown by someone, typically an infant, when a familiar caregiver leaves. 216
separation anxiety disorder  Condition involving excessive, prolonged anxiety concerning separation from home or from people to whom a person is attached. 330
sequential study  Study design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal techniques. 49
seriation  Ability to order items along a dimension. 337
sex chromosomes  Pair of chromosomes that determines sex: XX in the normal human female, XY in the normal human male. 65
sex-linked inheritance  Pattern of inheritance in which certain characteristics carried on the X chromosome inherited from the mother are transmitted differently to her male and female offspring. 71
sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)  Diseases spread by sexual contact. 449
sexual orientation  Gender focus of consistent sexual, romantic, and affectionate interest, either heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual. 445
shaken baby syndrome  Form of maltreatment in which shaking an infant or toddler can cause brain damage, paralysis, or death. 162
single representations  In neo-Piagetian terminology, first stage in development of self-definition, in which children describe themselves in terms of individual, unconnected characteristics and in all-or-nothing terms. 282
situational compliance  Kochanska's term for obedience of a parent's orders only in the presence of signs of ongoing parental control. 224
slow-to-warm-up children  Children whose temperament is generally mild but who are hesitant about accepting new experiences. 209
small-for-date (small-for-gestational-age) infants  Infants whose birth weight is less than that of 90 percent of babies of the same gestational age as a result of slow fetal growth. 121
social capital  Family and community resources on which a person or family can draw. 354
social cognition  Ability to understand that other people have mental states and to gauge their feelings and intentions. 208
social cognitive theory  Albert Bandura's expansion of social learning theory; holds that children learn gender roles through socialization. 291
social construction  Concept about the nature of reality based on societally shared perceptions or assumptions. 8
social-contextual approach  Approach to the study of cognitive development that focuses on environmental influences, particularly parents and other caregivers. 169
social interaction model  Model, based on Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, that proposes that children construct autobiographical memories through conversation with adults about shared events. 267
socialization  Development of habits, skills, values, and motives shared by responsible, productive members of a society. 222
social learning theory  Theory that behaviors also are learned by observing and imitating models. Also called social cognitive theory. 31
social phobia  Extreme fear and/or avoidance of social situations. 330
social promotion  Policy of automatically promoting children even if they do not meet academic standards. 357
social referencing  Understanding an ambiguous situation by seeking out another person's perception of it. 218
social speech  Speech intended to be understood by a listener. 271
sociocultural theory  Vygotsky's theory of how contextual factors affect children's development. 33
socioeconomic status (SES)  Combination of economic and social factors, including income, education, and occupation, that describe an individual or family. 14
spermarche  A boy's first ejaculation. 401
spontaneous abortion  Natural expulsion from the uterus of a embryo that cannot survive outside the womb; also called miscarriage. 90
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale  Individual intelligence test for ages 2 and up, used to measure knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory. 268
state of arousal  Infant's physiological and behavioral status at a given moment in the periodic daily cycle of wakefulness, sleep, and activity. 119
stillbirth  Death of a fetus at or after the 20th week of gestation. 125
still-face paradigm  Research procedure used to measure mutual regulation in infants 2 to 9 months old. 218
storage  Retention of information in memory for future use. 265
stranger anxiety  Wariness of strange people and places, shown by some infants from age 6 to 12 months. 216
Strange Situation  Laboratory technique used to study infant attachment. 213
stuttering  Involuntary, frequent repetition or prolongation of sounds or syllables. 327
substance abuse  Repeated, harmful use of a substance, usually alcohol or other drugs. 409
substance dependence  Addiction (physical or psychological, or both) to a harmful substance. 409
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)  Sudden and unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant. 157
symbolic function  Piaget's term for ability to use mental representations (words, numbers, or images) to which a child has attached meaning. 257
syntax  Rules for forming sentences in a particular language. 193
systems of action  Increasingly complex combinations of motor skills that permit a wider or more precise range of movement and more control of the environment. 151, 242
tacit knowledge  Sternberg's term for information that is not formally taught or openly expressed but is necessary to get ahead.
telegraphic speech  Early form of sentence use consisting of only a few essential words. 193
temperament  Characteristic disposition or style of approaching and reacting to situations. 82, 209
teratogen  Environmental agent, such as a virus, a drug, or radiation, that can interfere with normal prenatal development and cause developmental abnormalities. 93
theory  Coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to organize, explain, and predict data. 24
theory of mind  Awareness and understanding of mental processes. 261
theory of multiple intelligences  Gardner's theory that there are eight distinct forms of intelligence. 347
theory of sexual selection  Darwinian theory, which holds that selection of sexual partners is influenced by the differing reproductive pressures that early men and women confronted in the struggle for survival of the species. 288
transduction  In Piaget's terminology, preoperational child's tendency to mentally link particular experiences, whether or not there is logically a causal relationship. 258
transitive inference  Understanding the relationship between two objects by knowing the relationship of each to a third object. 337
triarchic theory of intelligence  Sternberg's theory describing three types of intelligence: componential (analytical ability), experiential (insight and originality), and contextual (practical thinking). 348
two-way (dual-language) learning  Approach to second-language education in which English speakers and non-English speakers learn together in their own and each other's languages. 351
ultrasound  Prenatal medical procedure using high-frequency sound waves to detect the outline of a fetus and its movements, used to determine whether a pregnancy is progressing normally. 91
universal preschool  A national system for early care and education that makes access to preschool similar to kindergarten by using the public schools. 277
violation-of-expectations  Research method in which dishabituation to a stimulus that conflicts with experience is taken as evidence that an infant recognizes the new stimulus as surprising. 185
visible imitation  Imitation with parts of one's body that one can see. 177
visual cliff  Apparatus designed to give an illusion of depth and used to assess depth perception in infants. 154
visual guidance  Use of the eyes to guide movements of the hands or other parts of the body. 153
visually based retrieval  Process of retrieving the sound of a printed word on seeing the word as a whole. 352
visual preference  Tendency of infants to spend more time looking at one sight than another. 181
visual recognition memory  Ability to distinguish a familiar visual stimulus from an unfamiliar stimulus when shown both at the same time. 181
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III)  Individual intelligence test for schoolchildren that yields verbal and performance scores as well as a combined score. 344
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Revised (WPPSI-III)  Individual intelligence test for children ages 2½ to 7 that yields verbal and performance scores as well as a combined score. 268
whole-language approach  Approach to teaching reading that emphasizes visual retrieval and use of contextual clues. 352
withdrawal of love  Disciplinary strategy that involves ignoring, isolating, or showing dislike for a child. 299
working memory  Short-term storage of information being actively processed. 188, 266
zone of proximal development (ZPD)  Vygotsky's term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help. 34, 270
zygote  One-celled organism resulting from fertilization. 59







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