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Complete Table of ContentsPreface x
Guided Tour xvUnit 1Exploring the Atmosphere: What Lies Ahead?Chapter 1
Introduction to Meteorological Inquiry
A First Look at Weather Systems
Overview and Chapter Goals 5
Chapter Goals 5
A Meteorological Puzzle 5
Searching for an Explanation 6
Weather Observations and Instruments 6
Observation Times 7
Observing Clouds and Visibility 8
Observing Present Weather and Precipitation 9
Observing Wind 10
Observing Temperature and Humidity 10
Observing Air Pressure 12
Weather Observations in Time and Space 15
The Context in Time 15
The Context in Space 15
A Hypothesis 16
A Mapping Aid: The Plotting Model 16
Weather Map Patterns on July 14, 1992 17
Evaluating the Weather System Hypothesis 19
Basic Models of High and Low Pressure Systems 20
A Preliminary Model 20
Evaluating the Model: How Well Does It Work? 22
Adding Fronts to the Model 22
Evaluating the Frontal Cyclone Model 24
Applying the Frontal Cyclone Model 28
Using the Model to Forecast Local Weather 28
Using the Model to Estimate Weather
Conditions Elsewhere 28
Going Further: Reflection: Does the Model-
Explain the Weather? 28Chapter 2
Is the Atmosphere's Composition Changing?
Overview and Chapter Goals 33
Chapter Goals 33
Properties of Matter 33
Large-Scale Properties 33
Atomic Structure of Matter 34
Molecules in Motion: Kinetic Theory
and the Atomic Model 37
The Well-Mixed Atmosphere 37
Kinetic Theory and Temperature 37
Kinetic Theory and Kinetic Energy 37
Phases of Matter 39
Kinetic Theory and Air Pressure 39
Pressure, Temperature, and Density 41
The Gas Law 41
Air Composition and Air Quality 43
Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Argon 43
Water Vapor and the Hydrologic Cycle 43
Carbon Dioxide 45
Air Pollutants 47
The Upper Atmosphere 48
A Vertical Profile of the Atmosphere 48
The Troposphere 48
The Stratosphere 50
Ozone in the Stratosphere 50
The Mesosphere 53
The Thermosphere 53
The lonosphere 54
Going Further: Composition Changes:
A Broader Perspective 57
Past Atmospheres on Earth 57
The Atmospheres of Other Planets 57
Reflection 57 Chapter 3
How Does the Atmosphere Maintain Such a Steady
Temperature?
Overview and Chapter Goals 63
Chapter Goals 63
Sunlight: The Atmosphere's Ultimate Energy Source 63
Sunlight, Heat, and Energy: A Thought Experiment 63
The Distribution of Insolation across the Earth 64
Solar Fluxes in the Atmosphere and
at the Earth's Surface 70
Insolation and the Atmosphere 70
Insolation at the Earth's Surface 71
Temperature Changes Due to Absorbed Sunlight 72
Radiation: A Model 74
Radiation as Waves and Particles 74
Emission and Absorption of Radiation 76
The Electromagnetic Spectrum 76
Continuous Spectra 78
Line Spectra 80
Infrared Radiation 82
Radiation Emitted by the Earth's Surface 82
Longwave Radiation Absorbed by the Atmosphere 82
Radiation Emitted by the Atmosphere 82
The Greenhouse Effect 83
The Radiation Budget 83
Conductive and Convective Fluxes 84
Sensible Heat Flux 84
Latent Heat Flux 85
Earth's Energy Budget and Radiative Forcing 88
Balancing the Budget 88
Radiative Forcing 89
Reflection 89Unit 2Humidity, Clouds, and Precipitation: How Does the Atmosphere Produce Rain?Chapter 4
Humidity
Overview and Chapter Goals 95
Chapter Goals 95
Evaporation 95
Evaporation as a Molecular Process 95
Variations in Equilibrium Vapor Pressure 96
Humidity Variables and Measuring Instruments 98
Mixing Ratio 98
Relative Humidity 99
Dewpoint Temperature 100
Wet-Bulb Temperature 102
Humidity Variations and Their Effect
on Human Comfort 104
Humidity Variations with Time of Day 104
Seasonal and Regional Variations in Humidity 104
Formation of Dew and Frost 107
Dew 107
Frost 109
How Does Water Vapor Nucleate in the Free Air? 109
Condensation 109
Nucleation at Temperatures below 0°C 112
Going Further: Curvature and Solute Effects 112Chapter 5
How Do Clouds Form?
Overview and Chapter Goals 121
Chapter Goals 121
Basic Cloud Genera 121
Low Clouds 121
Middle Clouds 121
High Clouds 123
Clouds of Vertical Development 123
Mechanisms of Cloud Formation: Overview 126
Upward Motion as a Cooling Mechanism 127
Adiabatic Changes in a Rising Air Parcel 127
Graphing Dry Adiabatic Processes 129
Moist Adiabatic Processes 132
Cloud Formation by Buoyant Lifting 133
Stability: Basic Concepts 134
Parcels versus the Environment 134
Cloud Formation Due to Static Instability 135
Cumulus Cloud Growth 139
Cloud Formation by Forced Lifting 141
Orographic Lifting 141
Lifting in Fronts and Low Pressure Centers 142
Going Further: Lifting Destabilizes an Air Layer 143
Cloud Formation Due to Cooling by the Earth's
Surface 144
Radiation Fog 144
Advection Fog 145
Some Other Cloud Formation Mechanisms 146
Cloud Formation by Mixing 146
Cloud Formation by Water Vapor Uptake 149
Cloud Metamorphosis 149 Chapter 6
Precipitation
Overview and Chapter Goals 153
Chapter Goals 153
How Is Precipitation Generated? 153
Condensation and Deposition 153
Collision and Coalescence 154
The Bergeron Process 155
Using Radar to Observe Precipitation in Clouds 158
Precipitation Types 163
Snow 163
Rain 163
Snow Pellets 164
Ice Pellets 164
Freezing Rain 165
Hail 165
The Distribution of Precipitation 168
Precipitation Modification: The Theory 171
Warm Rain Modification 171
Bergeron Process Modification 172
Going Further: Precipitation Modification in Practice 175
Experimental Design 175
Cloud Seeding Programs: Some Examples 175
Inadvertent Precipitation Modification 176
Social and Legal Concerns 177
Perspective 179 Unit 3Synoptic-Scale Meteorology: How Are
Weather Forecasts Made?Chapter 7
Structure of Large Mid-Latitude Weather Systems
Overview and Chapter Goals 185
Chapter Goals 185
How Pressure Differences Arise 185
Forces and Motions 187
Newton's First Law of Motion 187
Newton's Second Law of Motion 187
Newton's Third Law of Motion 188
Forces Acting on the Atmosphere 189
The Force of Gravity 189
Pressure-Gradient Force 190
Coriolis Force 191
Geostrophic Balance 192
Gradient Flow 197
Friction 198
Vertical Motions and the Movement of
Pressure Centers 200
Convergence and Divergence 200
Motions of High and Low Pressure Centers 201
Pressure, Temperature, and Thickness
Relationships 203
Layer Thickness, Temperature, and Wind 203
Thickness, Fronts, and Jet Streams 204
Vertical Structure of Pressure Systems 205
Going Further: Backing, Veering, and
Temperature Advection 208Chapter 8
Air Masses, Fronts, and Frontal Cyclones
Overview and Chapter Goals 213
Chapter Goals 213
Air Masses 213
Airmass Source Regions 213
Continental Polar Air Masses 214
Maritime Polar Air Masses 216
Continental Tropical Air Masses 217
Maritime Tropical Air Masses 217
Fronts 219
What Is a Front? 219
Cold Fronts 220
Warm Fronts 225
Stationary Fronts 226
Special Cases of Stationary Fronts 226
Occluded Fronts 227
Formation and Dissipation of Fronts 229
Fronts on Weather Charts 229
Frontal Cyclones 231
Historical Background 231
The Norwegian Cyclone Model 231
Recent Advancements: A Conveyor Belt Model 233
What Causes Cyclone Development? 233
Short Waves and Long Waves 233
The Roles of Divergence and Vorticity 234
Baroclinic and Barotropic Flow 238
A Three-Dimensional Cyclone Development Model 238
Retrospective: The Norwegian Cyclone Model 240Chapter 9
Weather Forecasting
Overview and Chapter Goals 245
Chapter Goals 245
Forecasting Techniques 245
Persistence Forecasting 245
Forecasting Based on Local Conditions 246
Trend Forecasting 246
Cycles and Trend Forecasting 246
Interpolation 247
Steering 248
Weather Types 248
Numerical Weather Prediction 248
Climatology 248
Forecast Case Study: A Summer
Night in Pittsburgh 249
First Step: Checking Present Conditions 249
Climatology 251
The Radar Image 251
Synoptic-Scale Maps 252
Computer Guidance 253
Moisture and Stability 255
Regional Weather Maps 258
The Forecast 261
Verifying the Forecast 261
Updating the Forecast 263
National Weather Service Forecasts and Services 263
The National Weather Service 263
NWS Forecast Products 264
NWS Research Activities 269
Commercial Weather Forecasting Services 271
Forecasts for Utility Companies 271
Forecasts for the Media 271
Forecasts for the Construction Industry 273
Forecasts for Government Agencies 273
Surface Transportation Forecasts 274
Forecasts for the Skiing Industry 274
International Forecasts 274
Reflection 274Unit 4Circulations Large and Small: Are There Limits to Atmospheric Predictability?Chapter 10
Circulations on Many Scales and Their Interactions
Overview and Chapter Goals 281
Chapter Goals 281
Forms and Scales of Atmospheric Motion 281
Forms of Fluid Motion 281
Scales of Atmospheric Circulations 284
The Molecular Scale 284
Laminar Flow 284
The Transition to Turbulence 285
Turbulent Flow 285
Microscale Circulations 287
Forces on the Microscale 287
Surface Turbulence 287
The Dust Devil: A Microscale Circulation 287
Turbulence Aloft 290
Mesoscale Circulations 290
Forces and Origins 290
Land and Sea Breeze Circulations 291
Mountain and Valley Winds 293
The Effects of Mountain Ranges 294
Synoptic-Scale Circulations and Local Winds 294
Chinook Winds 295
Santa Ana Winds 295
Nor'easters 296
Lake Effect Snowstorms 296
Global-Scale Structures and the General Circulation 298
The Tropics 298
The Subtropics 301
Monsoon Circulations 302
Middle and High Latitudes 302
Observed General Circulation at the Earth's Surface 303
Observed 500-Millibar General Circulation 303
Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions 306
Global-Scale Ocean Currents 306
Upwelling 306
ENSO 308
Chaos and the Butterfly Effect 313Chapter 11
Thunderstorms and Tornadoes
Overview and Chapter Goals 319
Chapter Goals 319
Thunderstorm Structure and Life Cycle 319
Life Cycle of a Thunderstorm 319
Thunderstorm Frequencies 322
Lightning and Thunder 325
Electrical Properties of Matter 325
Properties of Thunderstorm Electricity 326
How Does Charge Separation Occur in a Thunderstorm? 327
The Lightning Flash 329
Lightning Safety 330
Multicell and Severe Thunderstorms 332
Multicell Thunderstorms 333
Larger Associations of Thunderstorms 334
Supercell Thunderstorms 336
Tornadoes 340
Observing Tornadoes 340
How Do Tornadoes Form? 343
Waterspouts 346
Tornado Forecasting and Safety 346 Chapter 12
Hurricanes
Overview and Chapter Goals 355
Chapter Goals 355
Hurricanes and Tropical Weather 355
What Is a Hurricane? 355
When and Where Do Hurricanes Form? 355
Tropical Weather 356
Requirements for Tropical Cyclone Formation 356
A Tropical Storm Is Born 360
Tropical Storm Genesis (Days 1-3) 360
Tropical Cyclone Categories 361
Slight Strengthening (Days 4-5) 362
Tropical Cyclone Names 362
Andrew Tracks Northwestward (Days 6-8) 364
Paths of Tropical Cyclones 364
Predicting Andrew's Course 365
The Forecast 367
Andrew Becomes a Hurricane (Days 8-10) 368
Structure of Mature Hurricanes 368
The Hurricane's Eye 370
What Sustains the Hurricane? 370
Andrew Approaches Land: Warnings Are Issued 371
Hurricane Conditions: A Triple Threat 371
The Saffir-Simpson Scale 373
Hurricane Preparedness 373
Landfall and Dissipation (Days 10-14) 376
Observing the Hurricane Come Ashore 376
Andrew Weakens, Then Regenerates 378
A Second Landfall, Then Dissipation 379
Andrew's Legacy 379
Retrospective: Are Hurricanes and Tornadoes
Predictable? 381Chapter 13
Introduction to Climatology: How Stable Is
Earth's Climate?
Overview and Chapter Goals 385
Chapter Goals 385
Defining and Measuring a Region's Climate 385
Standard Measures of Climate 385
Proxy Data 387
What Is a "Stable Climate"? 387
What Factors Determine a Region's Climate? 388
Constant Factors 389
Variable Factors 389
Climate Classification 394
Genetic Systems 394
Empirical Systems 395
The Köppen System: An Empirical Classification 396
A Snapshot of Earth's Changing Climates 397
Global-Scale Features 397
Moist Tropical (A) Climates 398
Going Further: Details of Köppen's A Climates 399
Dry (B) Climates 401
Going Further: Details of Köppen's B Climates 403
Moist Mild-Winter (C) Climates 403
Going Further: Details of Köppen's Cs Climate 407
Moist Cold-Winter (D) Climates 408
Polar (E) Climates 408
Highland (H) Climates 411
How Stable Is Earth's Climate? 414
Earth's Past Climates 414
Climatic Perturbations and Responses 416
Astronomical Perturbations 416
Geological Perturbations 417
Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions 417
Anthropogenic Changes 418
Effects of Chaos 419
Recapitulation 419Special TopicsChapter 14
Is the Atmosphere Warming?
Overview and Chapter Goals 423
Chapter Goals 423
Radiative Forcing: Key to Global Warming 423
Changes in Radiative Forcing 425
An Enhanced Greenhouse Effect 425
Variations in the Solar Constant 426
Changes in Atmospheric Particle Concentrations 427
Feedbacks to Radiative Forcing 429
The Nature of Feedback 429
Feedback through Changes in Longwave Radiation 430
Other Feedbacks to Radiative Forcing 431
Computer Models of Global Warming 432
Computer Models 432
What the Models Say about Global Warming 433
How Trustworthy Are the Models? 434
The Temperature Record: What Does It Say? 435
Global Mean Temperatures 435
Sources of Error in the Temperature Data 436
Other Temperature Data 437
Proxy Data of Global Warming 437
Is the Greenhouse Effect to Blame? 440
Global Warming and the Future 443
How Much Warming, If Any, Can We Expect? 443
Impacts of Global Warming 444
How Can We Respond to the Threat? 445
Urban Heat Islands: Climates of the Future? 447 Chapter 15
Light and Color in the Atmosphere
Overview and Chapter Goals 453
Chapter Goals 453
Light and Shadows 453
Locating Objects in the Sky 453
Brief Review of Light 454
Light and Shadow in the Atmosphere 454
Where Is That Object, Really? Atmospheric
Refraction Effects 457
Refraction 458
The Effect of Refraction on Objects' Positions and Shapes 458
Mirages 460
The Color of Sky and Clouds 463
Why Is the Sky Blue? 463
Going Further: Rayleigh Scattering Calculations 463
The Brightness and Color of Clouds 466
Halos, Coronas, and Rainbows 468
Halos and Related Phenomena 468
Coronas and Similar Features 471
Going Further: Irisation 473
Rainbows and the Glory 474
Going Further: Supernumerary Bows 477Chapter 16
Air Pollution
Overview and Chapter Goals 483
Chapter Goals 483
An Inventory of Air Pollutants 483
Sulfur Compounds 483
Nitrogen Compounds 484
Ozone 485
Other Atmospheric Constituents 487
Air Pollution Sources 489
The Indoor Atmosphere: Health Issues 490
Oxygen Deficits 490
Radon 491
Smoking 491
Household Products 491
Factors Affecting the Dispersion of Air Pollution 492
Atmospheric Stability 492
Winds 493
Topography 493
Monitoring and Managing Our Air Quality 496
Air Quality Legislation and Standards 496
Air Pollution Abatement 497
Acid Deposition 499
Sources and Deposition Areas 499
How Acidic Is the Rain? 500
Consequences of Acid Deposition 500
Acid Deposition Abatement Measures 500 | Appendices | |
A | | Some Notable Dates in the History of Meteorology 506 | | B | | Scientific Notation 508 | | C | | SI Units of Measurement 509 | | D | | Other Units, Conversion Factors, and Constants 510 | | E | | List of Elements 512 | | F | | Latitude and Longitude 513 | | G | | Time Zones 515 | | H | | Weather Plotting Symbols 517 | | I | | Windchill and Heat Index Tables 520 | | J | | Humidity Table 522 | | K | | Saturation Mixing Ratio Diagram 523 | | L | | Thermodynamic Diagram 525 | | M | | Climatological Data 526 | | N | | Atomic Structure: A Review of Some Basics 531 |
Glossary 535
Index 541 |
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2002 McGraw-Hill Higher Education