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communication  a social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish and interpret meaning in their environment
social  the notion that people and interactions are part of the communication process
process  ongoing, dynamic, and unending occurrence
symbol  arbitrary label given to a phenomenon
concrete symbol  symbol representing an object
abstract symbol  symbol representing an idea or thought
environment  situation or context in which communication occurs
Palo Alto team  a group of scholars who believed that a person "cannot not communicate"
models  simplified representations of the communication process
linear model of communication  one-way view of communication that assumes a message is sent by a source to a receiver through a channel
source  originator or transmitter of message
message  words, sounds, actions, or gestures in an interaction
receiver  recipient of message
channel  pathway to communication
noise  distortion in channel not intended by the source
semantic noise  linguistic influences on reception of message
physical (external) noise  bodily influences on reception of message
psychological noise  cognitive influences on reception of message
physiological noise  biological influences on reception of message
interactional model of communication  view of communication as sharing of meaning with feedback linking source and receiver
feedback  communication given to the source by the receiver to indicate understanding (meaning)
field of experience  overlap of sender's and receiver's culture, experiences, and heredity in communication
transactional model of communication  view of communication as the simultaneous sending and receiving of messages
dark side of communication  negative communication that can undermine the communication process
ethics  perceived rightness or wrongness of an action or behavior
lifespace  group member's psychological environment
contexts  environments in which communication takes place
situational contexts  environments limited by a number of issues, including people, space, and feedback
intrapersonal communication  communication with one's self
self-esteem  the positive orientation a person has of himself or herself
interpersonal communication  face-to-face communication between people
small group  individuals who come together for a common purpose
cohesive  sense of togetherness in a group
synergy  process that allows for multiple perspectives to be given on issues or events
networks  communication patterns through which information flows
roles  positions of group members and their relationship to the group
organizational communication  communication within and among large, extended environments
hierarchy  organizing principle demonstrating rankings
Hawthorne experiments  research studies that found workplace productivity increased when changes in environment occurred
public communication  dissemination of information from one person to a large group
rhetoric  speaker's available means of persuasion
communication apprehension  fear of speaking before an audience
mass media  channels or delivery modes for mass messages
mass communication  communication to a large audience via mass media
new media  electronic media (notably computer-related technology) such as the Internet, e-mail, and digital cable
culture  community of meaning and a shared body of knowledge
intercultural communication  communication between individuals with different cultural backgrounds
co-cultures  cultural groups that are part of the larger (national) culture
theory  an abstract system of concepts and their relationships that help us to understand a phenomenon
grand theory  theory that attempts to explain all of a phenomenon such as communication
mid-range theory  theory that attempts to explain a specified aspect of a phenomenon such as communication
narrow theory  theory that attempts to explain a very limited aspect of a phenomenon such as communication
concepts  labels for the most important elements in a theory
nominal concepts  concepts that are not directly observable
real concepts  concepts that are observable
relationships  the ways in which the concepts of a theory are combined
paradigms  intellectual traditions that ground specific theories
ontology  questions about the nature of reality
epistemology  questions about how we know things
axiology  questions about what is worth knowing
metatheory  theory about how to develop theory
covering law approach  a metatheoretical framework suggesting that theories should follow if-then formats and should be universal, invariant statements
rules approach  a metatheoretical framework suggesting that theories should follow a format that lists rules in given contexts and should acknowledge variability across situations, cultures, and time
cause  an antecedent condition that determines an effect
effect  a condition that inevitably follows a causative condition
systems approach  a metatheoretical framework suggesting that theories should follow a format that maps the systemic properties of a phenomenon; takes the position that people have free will, which is sometimes constrained by systemic factors
hypotheses  testable predictions of relationships between concepts that follow the general predictions made by a theory
movements  stimulus-response behaviors
actions  intentional choice responses
habitual rules  rules that are set by an authority and are nonnegotiable
parametric rules  rules that are set by an authority but are negotiable
tactical rules  unstated rules used to achieve a personal or interpersonal objective
wholeness  a fundamental property of systems theory stating that systems are more than the sum of their individual parts
interdependence  a property of systems theory stating that the elements of a system are interrelated
subsystems  lower levels of a system
suprasystems  higher levels of a system
hierarchy  a property of systems theory stating that systems consist of multiple levels
boundaries  a property of systems theory stating that systems construct some structures delimiting themselves
openness  acknowledgment that within all human systems the boundaries constructed are more or less permeable
calibration  a property of systems theory stating that systems periodically check the scale of allowable behaviors and reset the system
feedback  a subprocess of calibration; information allowing for change in the system
morphogenic  a term for changing systems
homeostatic  a term for stable systems
equifinality  a property of systems theory stating that systems can achieve the same goals through different means
scope  a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the breadth of communication behaviors covered in the theory
logical consistency  a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the internal logic in the theoretical statements
parsimony  a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the simplicity of the explanation provided by the theory
utility  a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the theory's usefulness or practical value
testability  a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to our ability to test the accuracy of a theory's claims
heurism  a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the amount of research and new thinking stimulated by the theory
test of time  a criterion for evaluating theories; refers to the theory's durability over time
operationalize  making an abstract concept measurable and observable
observations  focused examination within a context of interest; may be guided by hypotheses and/or research questions
data  the raw materials collected by the researcher to answer the questions posed in the research and/or to test a hypothesis
code  converting raw data to a category system
scientific method  the traditional method for doing research involving controlled observations and analysis to test the principles of a theory
deductive logic  moving from the general to the specific
inductive logic  moving from the specific to the general
grounded theory  theory induced from data collection and analysis in a study
pure research  research to generate knowledge
applied research  research to solve a problem or create a policy
positivistic (empirical) approach  an approach assuming the existence of objective reality and value-neutral research
control  the researcher's ability to direct the important concepts in the research process
interpretive (hermeneutic) approach  an approach viewing truth as subjective and stressing the participation of the researcher in the research process
critical approach  an approach stressing the researcher's responsibility to change the inequities in the status quo
quantitative methods  methods that require data to be converted to numbers and subjected to statistical analyses
qualitative methods  methods that require data to be interpreted through sense-making analyses
triangulation  an approach to research involving multiple methods
survey research  a specific research method asking participants to respond to written questionnaires
unit of analysis  the specific object of study; may be an individual, a family, an organization, and so forth
statistically significant  a finding indicating the presence of a relationship at a rate greater than chance
experimental research  a specific research method where researchers manipulate conditions; often done in a laboratory setting
independent variable  a concept of interest that is presumed to have effects on another variable
dependent variable  a concept of interest that is presumed to vary as a result of the independent variable
depth interviews  semistructured or unstructured interviews lasting at least one hour aimed at collecting rich descriptions from respondents
ethnography  a specific research method where researchers immerse themselves in participants' lives, aiming to describe people's culturally distinct patterns of communication
textual analysis  a specific research method requiring researchers to analyze a particular text such as a presidential speech or a television series
self-concept  a relatively stable set of perceptions people hold about themselves
self-fulfilling prophecy  a prediction about yourself causing you to behave in such a way that it comes true
mind  the ability to use symbols with common social meanings
language  a shared system of verbal and nonverbal symbols
significant symbols  symbols whose meaning is generally agreed upon by many people
thought  an inner conversation
role taking  the ability to put oneself in another's place
self  imagining how we look to another person
looking-glass self  our ability to see ourself as another sees us
Pygmalion effect  living up to or down to another's expectations of us
I  the spontaneous, impulsive, creative self
Me  the reflective, socially aware self
society  the web of social relationships humans create and respond to
particular others  individuals who are significant to us
generalized other  the attitude of the whole community
social reality  a person's beliefs about how meaning and action fit within an interpersonal interaction
personal meaning  the meaning achieved when a person brings his or her unique experiences to an interaction
interpersonal meaning  the result when two people agree on each other's interpretations of an interaction
raw data  uninterpreted stimuli
content  the conversion of raw data into meaning
speech acts  actions we perform by speaking (e.g., questioning, complimenting, or threatening)
contract  relationship agreement and understanding between two people
enmeshment  extent to which partners identify themselves as part of a system
episodes  communication routines that have recognized beginnings, middles, and endings
punctuate  how individuals interpret or emphasize an episode
life scripts  clusters of past or present episodes that create a system of manageable meanings with others
cultural patterns  images of the world and a person's relationship to it
individualism  prioritizing personal needs or values over the needs or values of a group (I-identity)
collectivism  priortizing group needs or values over the needs or values of an individual (we-identity)
coordination  making sense of message sequencing
resources  stories, symbols, and images that people use to make sense of their world
constitutive rules  organize behavior and help us to understand how meaning should be interpreted
regulative rules  guidelines for people's behavior
unwanted repetitive patterns (URPs)  recurring, undesirable conflicts in a relationship
loop  the reflexiveness of levels in the hierarchy of meaning
charmed loop  rules of meaning are consistent throughout the loop
strange loop  rules of meaning change within the loop
cognitions  ways of knowing, beliefs, judgments, and thoughts
cognitive dissonance  feeling of discomfort resulting from inconsistent attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors
consonant relationship  two elements in equilibrium with one another
dissonant relationship  two elements in disequilibrium with one another
irrelevant relationship  two elements that have no meaningful relation to one another
magnitude of dissonance  the quantitative amount of discomfort felt
importance  a factor in determining magnitude of dissonance; refers to how significant the issue is
dissonance ratio  a factor in determining magnitude of dissonance; the amount of consonant cognitions relative to the dissonant ones
rationale  a factor in determining magnitude of dissonance; refers to the reasoning employed to explain the inconsistency
selective exposure  a method for reducing dissonance by seeking information that is consonant with current beliefs and actions
selective attention  a method for reducing dissonance by paying attention to information that is consonant with current beliefs and actions
selective interpretation  a method for reducing dissonance by interpreting ambiguous information so that it becomes consistent with current beliefs and actions
selective retention  a method for reducing dissonance by remembering information that is consonant with current beliefs and actions
minimal justification  offering the least amount of incentive necessary to obtain compliance
buyer's remorse  postdecision dissonance related to a purchase
biased scanning  thinking of arguments in favor of a counter-attitudinal position while suppressing those against it
impression management  an alternative explanation to CDT; involves activities people engage in to look good to themselves and others
self-perception  an alternative explanation to CDT; involves making conclusions about your attitudes by observing your behavior
self-affirmation  an alternative explanation to CDT; involves creating dissonance by behaving in a manner that threatens one's sense of moral integrity
proxemics  study of a person's use of space
personal space  individual's variable use of space and distance
intimate distance  very close spatial zone spanning 0-18 inches
personal distance  spatial zone of 18 inches to 4 feet, reserved for family and friends
social distance  spatial zone of 4-12 feet, reserved for more formal relationships such as those with co-workers
public distance  spatial zone of 12 feet and beyond, reserved for very formal discussions such as between professor and students in class
territoriality  person's ownership of an area or object
primary territories  signal a person's exclusive domain over an area or object
secondary territories  signal a person's affiliation with an area or object
public territories  signal open spaces for everyone, including beaches and parks
expectations  thoughts and behaviors anticipated in conversations
pre-interactional expectations  the knowledge or skills a communicator brings to an interaction
interactional expectations  an individual's ability to carry out the interaction
communicator reward valence  the sum of the positive and negative characteristics of a person and the potential for him or her to carry out rewards or punishments
arousal  increased interest or attention when deviations from expectations occur
cognitive arousal  mental awareness of deviations from expectations
physical arousal  bodily changes as a result of deviations from expectations
threat threshold  tolerance for distance violations
violation valence  perceived negative or positive value of a deviation from expectations
prediction  the ability to forecast one's own and others' behavioral choices
explanation  the ability to interpret the meaning of behavioral choices
cognitive uncertainty  degree of uncertainty related to cognitions
behavioral uncertainty  degree of uncertainty related to behaviors
self-disclosure  personal messages about the self disclosed to another
entry phase  the beginning stage of an interaction between strangers
personal phase  the stage in a relationship when people begin to communicate more spontaneously and personally
exit phase  the stage in a relationship when people decide whether to continue or leave
axioms  truisms drawn from past research and common sense
reciprocity  communication that mirrors the previous communication behavior
theorems  theoretical statements derived from axioms, positing a relationship between two concepts
passive strategy  reducing uncertainties by unobtrusive observation
active strategy  reducing uncertainties by means other than direct contact
interactive strategy  reducing uncertainties by engaging in conversation
relational uncertainty  a lack of certainty about the future and status of a relationship
low-context cultures  cultures, like the United States, where most of the meaning is in the code or message
high-context cultures  cultures, like Japan, where the meaning of a message is in the context or internalized in listeners
uncertainty avoidance  an attempt to avoid ambiguous situations
social penetration  process of bonding that moves a relationship from superficial to more intimate
trajectory  pathway to closeness
depenetrate  slow deterioration of relationship
self-disclosure  purposeful process of revealing information about one's self
stranger-on-the-train  revealing personal information to strangers in public places
public image  outer layer of a person; what is available to others
reciprocity  the return of openness from one person to another
breadth  number of topics discussed in a relationship
breadth time  amount of time spent by relational partners discussing various topics
depth  degree of intimacy guiding topic discussion
reward/cost ratio  balance between positive and negative relationship experiences
orientation stage  stage of social penetration that includes revealing small parts of ourselves
exploratory affective exchange stage  stage of social penetration that results in the emergence of our personality to others
affective exchange stage  stage of social penetration that is spontaneous and quite comfortable for relational partners
personal idioms  private intimate expressions stated in a relationship
stable exchange stage  stage of social penetration that results in complete openness and spontaneity for relational partners
dyadic uniqueness  distinctive relationship qualities
costs  elements of relational life with negative value
rewards  elements of relational life with positive value
outcome  whether people continue in a relationship or terminate it
comparison level (CL)  a standard for what a person thinks he or she should get in a relationship
comparison level for alternatives (CLalt)  how people evaluate a relationship based on what their alternatives to the relationship are
behavioral sequences  a series of actions designed to achieve a goal
power  the degree of dependence a person has on another for outcomes
fate control  the ability to affect a partner's outcomes
behavior control  the power to change another's behavior
given matrix  the constraints on your choices due to the environment and/or your own skill levels
effective matrix  the transformations you are able to make to your given matrix, by learning a new skill, for example
dispositional matrix  the beliefs you have about relationships
direct exchange  an exchange where two people reciprocate costs and rewards
generalized exchange  an exchange where reciprocation involves the social network and isn't confined to two individuals
productive exchange  an exchange where both partners incur costs and benefits simultaneously
monologic approach  an approach framing contradiction as either/or
dualistic approach  an approach framing contradiction as two separate entities
dialectic approach  an approach framing contradiction as both/and
totality  acknowledges the interdependence of people in a relationship
contradiction  the central feature of the dialectic approach; refers to oppositions
motion  refers to the processual nature of relationships
praxis  refers to the choice-making capacity of humans
autonomy and connection  an important relational tension that shows our conflicting desires to be close and to be separate
openness and protection  an important relational tension that shows our conflicting desires to tell our secrets and to keep them hidden
novelty and predictability  an important relational tension that shows our conflicting desires to have stability and change
interactional dialectics  tensions resulting from and constructed by communication
contextual dialectics  tensions resulting from the place of the relationship within the culture
public and private dialectic  a contextual dialectic resulting from a private relationship and public life
real and ideal dialectic  a contextual dialectic resulting from the difference between idealized relationships and lived relationships
cyclic alternation  a coping response to dialectical tensions; refers to changes over time
segmentation  a coping response to dialectical tensions; refers to changes due to context
selection  a coping response to dialectical tensions; refers to prioritizing oppositions
integration  a coping response to dialectical tensions; refers to synthesizing the opposition; composed of three substrategies
neutralizing  a substrategy of integration; refers to compromising between the oppositions
reframing  a substrategy of integration; refers to transforming the oppositions
disqualifying  a substrategy of integration; refers to exempting certain issues from the general pattern
microtheory  a theory with limited boundaries
macrotheory  a theory with extensive boundaries
private information  information about things that matter deeply to a person
private disclosures  the process of communicating private information to another
intimacy  the feeling state of knowing someone deeply in all ways because that person is significant in one's life
private boundaries  the demarcation of private information from public information
collective boundary  a boundary around private information that includes more than one person
personal boundary  a boundary around private information that includes just one person
privacy rule characteristics  one of the processes in the privacy rule management system; describes the nature of privacy rules
rule development  one of the features of privacy rule characteristics; describes how rules come to be decided
privacy rule attributes  one of the features of privacy rule characteristics; describes how people acquire rules and the properties of rules
rule properties  the characteristics of a rule that reveal how stable or changeable it is
boundary coordination  one of the processes in the privacy rule management system; describes how we manage private information that is co-owned
boundary linkage  the connections forming boundary alliances between people
boundary ownership  rights and privileges accruing to co-owners of private information
boundary permeability  how much information is able to pass through a boundary
thick boundaries  closed boundaries allowing little or no information to pass through
thin boundaries  open boundaries allowing all information to pass through
boundary turbulence  conflicts about boundary expectations and regulation
problem-solving groups  sets of individuals whose main task is to make decisions and provide policy recommendations
task-oriented groups  sets of individuals whose main goal is to work toward completing jobs assigned to them
cohesiveness  the extent to which group members are willing to work together
affiliative constraints  refers to when members withhold their input rather than face rejection from the group
homogeneity  group similarity
group insulation  a group's ability to remain unaffected by outside influences
lack of impartial leadership  refers to when groups are led by individuals who put their personal agenda first
lack of decision-making procedures  failure to provide norms for solving group issues
internal and external stress  pressure exerted on the group by issues and events both inside and outside of the group
concurrence seeking  efforts to search out group consensus
overestimation of the group  erroneous belief that the group is more than it is
illusion of invulnerability  belief that the group is special enough to overcome obstacles
belief in the inherent morality of the group  assumption that the group members are thoughtful and good, therefore the decisions they make will be good
closed-mindedness  a group's willingness to ignore differences in people and warnings about poor group decisions
out-group stereotypes  stereotyped perceptions of group enemies or competitors
collective rationalization  situation in which group members ignore warnings about their decisions
pressure toward uniformity  occurs when group members go along to get along
self-censorship  group members minimize personal doubts and counterarguments
illusion of unanimity  belief that silence equals agreement
self-appointed mindguards  individuals who protect the group from adverse information
pressures on dissenters  direct influence on group members who provide thoughts contrary to the group's
whistle-blowing  process in which individuals report unethical or illegal behaviors or practices to others
conscientious objectors  group members who refuse to participate because it would violate personal conscience
system  a group or organization and the behaviors that the group engages in to pursue its goals
structure  the rules and resources used to sustain a group or organization
structuration  the production, reproduction, and transformation of social environments through rules and resources in relationships
power  imposition of personal will on others
agency  behaviors or activities used in social environments
agent  a person engaging in behaviors or activities in social environments
reflexivity  a person's ability to monitor his or her actions or behaviors
discursive consciousness  a person's ability to articulate personal goals or behaviors
practical consciousness  a person's inability to articulate personal goals or behaviors
duality of structure  rules and resources used to guide organizational decisions about behaviors or actions
rules  general routines that the organization or group follows in accomplishing goals
resources  attributes or material goods that can be used to exert power in an organization
allocative resources  material assistance used to help groups accomplish their goals
authoritative resources  interpersonal assistance used to help groups accomplish their goals
reward power  perception that another person has the ability to provide positive outcomes
coercive power  perception that another person has the ability to enact punishment
referent power  perception that another person has the ability to achieve compliance because of established personal relationships
legitimate power  perception that another person has the ability to exert influence because of title or position
expert power  perception that another person has the ability to exert influence due to special knowledge or expertise
social integration  reciprocity of communication behaviors in interaction
objective factors  characteristics (e.g., clarity, rules) associated with achieving a group task
group factors  group-related characteristics associated with achieving a group task
group-task factors  individual group resources available to a group to achieve its task
group-structural factors  systemic resources available to a group to achieve its task
organizational culture  the essence of organizational life
values  standards and principles in a culture
field journal  personal log to record feelings about communicating with people in a different culture from one's own
thick description  explanation of the layers of meaning in a culture
performance  metaphor suggesting that organizational life is like a theatrical presentation
ritual performances  regular and recurring presentations in the workplace
personal rituals  routines done at the workplace each day
task rituals  routines associated with a particular job in the workplace
social rituals  routines that involve relationships with others in the workplace
organizational rituals  routines that pertain to the organization overall
passion performances  organizational stories that employees share with one another
social performances  organizational behaviors intended to demonstrate cooperation and politeness with others
political performances  organizational behaviors that demonstrate power or control
enculturation performances  organizational behaviors that assist employees in discovering what it means to be a member of an organization
feedback  information received by an organization and its members
theory of sociocultural evolution  Darwin's belief that only the fittest can survive challenging surroundings
equivocality  the extent to which organizational messages are uncertain, ambiguous, and/or unpredictable
information environment  the availability of all stimuli in an organization
requisite variety  engaging in communication that is as complex as the messages received
rules  guidelines in organizations as they review responses to equivocal information
duration  organizational rule stating that decisions regarding equivocality should be made in the least amount of time
personnel  organizational rule stating that the most knowledgeable workers should resolve equivocality
success  organizational rule stating that a successful plan of the past will be used to reduce current equivocality
effort  organizational rule stating that decisions regarding equivocality should be made with the least amount of work
cycles  series of communication behaviors that serve to reduce equivocality
act  communication behaviors indicating a person's ambiguity in receiving a message
response  reaction to equivocality
adjustment  organizational responses to equivocality
double interact loops  cycles of an organization (e.g., interviews, meetings) to reduce equivocality
enactment  interpretation of the information received by the organization
selection  choosing the best method for obtaining information
retention  collective memory allowing people to accomplish goals
Sophists  teachers of public speaking (rhetoric) in ancient Greece
rhetoric  the available means of persuasion
audience analysis  an assessment and evaluation of listeners
ethos  the perceived character, intelligence, and goodwill of a speaker
logos  logical proof; the use of arguments and evidence in a speech
pathos  emotional proof; emotions drawn from audience members
syllogism  a set of propositions that are related to one another and draw a conclusion from the major and minor premises
enthymeme  a syllogism based on probabilities, signs, and examples
probabilities  statements that are generally true, but still require conjecture
signs  statements that identify reasons for a fact
examples  statements that are either factual or invented by the speaker
invention  a canon of rhetoric that pertains to the construction or development of an argument related to a particular speech
topics  an aid to invention that refers to the arguments a speaker uses
civic spaces  a metaphor suggesting that speakers have "locations" where the opportunity to persuade others exists
arrangement  a canon of rhetoric that pertains to a speaker's ability to organize a speech
introduction  part of an organizational strategy in a speech that includes gaining the audience's attention, connecting with the audience, and providing an overview of the speaker's purpose
body  part of an organizational strategy in a speech that includes arguments, examples, and important details to make a point
conclusion  part of an organizational strategy in a speech that is aimed at summarizing a speaker's main points and arousing emotions in an audience
style  a canon of rhetoric that includes the use of language to express ideas in a speech
glosses  outdated words in a speech
metaphor  a figure of speech that helps to make the unclear more understandable
delivery  a canon of rhetoric that refers to the nonverbal presentation of a speaker's ideas
memory  a canon of rhetoric that refers to a speaker's effort in storing information for a speech
forensic rhetoric  a type of rhetoric that pertains to speakers prompting feelings of guilt or innocence from an audience
epideictic rhetoric  a type of rhetoric that pertains to praising or blaming
deliberative rhetoric  a type of rhetoric that determines an audience's course of action
substance  the general nature of something
identification  when two people have overlap in their substances
division  when two people fail to have overlap in their substances
consubstantiation  when appeals are made to increase overlap between people
guilt  tension, embarrassment, shame, disgust, or other unpleasant feeling
order or hierarchy  a ranking that exists in society primarily because of our ability to use language
the negative  rejecting one's place in the social order; exhibiting resistence
victimage  the way we attempt to purge the guilt we feel as part of being human
mortification  one method of purging guilt, by blaming ourselves
scapegoating  one method of purging guilt, by blaming others
redemption  A rejection of the unclean and a return to a new order after guilt has been temporarily purged
pentad  Burke's method for applying Dramatism
act  one prong of the pentad; that which is done by a person
scene  one prong of the pentad; the context surrounding the act
agent  one prong of the pentad; the person performing the act
agency  one prong of the pentad; the means used to perform the act
purpose  one prong of the pentad; the goal the agent had for the act
attitude  a later addition to the pentad; the manner in which the agent positions himself or herself relative to others
dramatistic ratios  the proportions of one element of the pentad relative to another element
paradigm shift  a significant change in the way most people see the world and its meanings
rational world paradigm  a system of logic employed by many researchers and professionals
narration  an account to which listeners assign meaning
narrative rationality  a standard for judging which stories to believe and which to disregard
coherence  a principle of narrative rationality judging the internal consistency of a story
structural coherence  a type of coherence referring to the flow of the story
material coherence  a type of coherence referring to the congruence between one story and other related stories
characterological coherence  a type of coherence referring to the believability of the characters in the story
fidelity  a principle of narrative rationality judging the credibility of a story
good reasons  a set of values for accepting a story as true and worthy of acceptance; provides a method for assessing fidelity
alienation  perception that one has little control over his or her future
Frankfurt School theorists  a group of scholars who believed that the media were more concerned with making money than with presenting news
neo-Marxist  limited embracement of Marxism
ideology  framework used to make sense of our existence
culture wars  cultural struggles over meaning, identity, and influence
hegemony  the domination of one group over another, usually weaker, group
false consciousness  Gramsci's belief that people are unaware of the domination in their lives
theatre of struggle  competition of various cultural ideologies
counter-hegemony  when at times, people will use hegemonic behaviors to challenge the domination in their lives
decoding  receiving and comparing messages
dominant-hegemonic position  operating within a code that allows a person to have control over another
negotiated position  accepting dominant ideologies, but allowing for cultural exceptions
oppositional position  substituting alternative messages presented by the media
causal argument  an assertion of cause and effect, including the direction of the causality
transmissional perspective  a position depicting the media as senders of messages across space
ritual perspective  a position depicting the media as representers of shared beliefs
violence index  a yearly content analysis of prime-time network programming to assess the amount of violence represented
ice age analogy  a position stating that television doesn't have to have a single major impact, but influences viewers through steady limited effects
cultivation differential  the percentage of difference in response between light and heavy television viewers
mainstreaming  the tendency for heavy viewers to perceive a similar culturally dominant reality to that pictured on the media although this differs from actual reality
resonance  occurs when a viewer's lived reality coincides with the reality pictured in the media
first order effects  a method for cultivation to occur; refers to learning facts from the media
second order effects  a method for cultivation to occur; refers to learning values and assumptions from the media
3 Bs of television  blurring of distinctions among worldviews, blending of realities into the cultural mainstream, and bending of the mainstream to institutional and corporate interests
Mass Society Theory  the idea that average people are the victims of the powerful forces of mass media
limited effects  the perspective replacing Mass Society Theory; holds that media effects are limited by aspects of the audience's personal and social lives
Individual Differences Perspective  a specific approach to the idea of Limited Effects; concentrates on the limits posed by personal characteristics
Social Categories Model  a specific approach to the idea of limited effects; concentrates on the limits posed by group membership
fraction of selection  Schramm's idea of how media choices are made: the expectation of reward divided by the effort required
parasocial interaction  the relationship we feel we have with people we know only through the media
diversion  a category of gratifications coming from media use; involves escaping from routines and problems
personal relationships  a category of gratifications coming from media use; involves substituting media for companionship
personal identity  a category of gratifications coming from media use; involves ways to reinforce individual values
surveillance  a category of gratifications coming from media use; involves collecting needed information
utility  using the media to accomplish specific tasks
intentionality  occurs when people's prior motives determine use of media
selectivity  audience members' use of media reflects their existing interests
imperviousness to influence  refers to audience members' constructing their own meaning from media content
activity  refers to what the media consumer does
activeness  refers to how much freedom the audience really has in the face of mass media
public  legal, social, and social-psychological concerns of people
opinion  expression of attitude
public opinion  attitudes and behaviors expressed in public in order to avoid isolation
quasi-statistical sense  personal estimation of the strength of opposing sides on a public issue
pluralistic ignorance  mistaken observation of how most people feel
ubiquity  the belief that media are everywhere
cumulativeness  the belief that media repeat themselves
consonance  the belief that all media are similar in attitudes, beliefs, and values
dual climates of opinion  difference between the population's perception of a public issue and the way the media report on the issue
train test  assessment of the extent to which people will speak out
last-minute swing  jumping on the bandwagon of popular opinion after opinions have been expressed
hard core  group(s) at the end of the spiral willing to speak out at any cost
bias of communication  Harold Innis's contention that technology has a shaping power on society
global village  the notion that humans can no longer live in isolation, but rather will always be connected by continuous and instantaneous electronic media
epoch  era or historical age
tribal era  age when oral tradition was embraced and hearing was the paramount sense
literate era  age when written communication flourished and the eye became the dominant sense organ
print era  age when gaining information through the printed word was customary and seeing continued as the dominant sense
electronic era  age in which electronic media pervades our senses, allowing for people across the world to be connected
ratio of the senses  phrase referring to the way people adapt to their environment (through a balance of the senses)
the medium is the message  phrase referring to the power and influence of the medium—not the content—on a society
hot media  high-definition communication that demands little involvement from a viewer, listener, or reader
cool media  low-definition communication that demands active involvement from a viewer, listener, or reader
laws of media  further expansion of Medium Theory with focus on the impact of technology on society
tetrad  organizing concept to understand the laws of media
enhancement  law that states media amplifies or strengthens society
obsolescence  law that states media eventually renders something out-of-date
retrieval  law that states media restores something that was once lost
reversal  law that states media will—when pushed to their limit—produce or become something
technopoly  a term coined by Postman that means we live in a society dominated by technology
face  a metaphor for the public image people display
face concern  interest in maintaining one's face or the face of others
face need  desire to be associated or disassociated with others
positive face  desire to be liked and admired by others
negative face  desire to be autonomous and free from others
facework  actions used to deal with face needs/wants of self and others
tact facework  extent to which a person respects another's autonomy
solidarity facework  accepting another as a member of an in-group
approbation facework  focusing less on the negative aspects of another and more on the positive aspects
self-identity  personal attributes of another
face-saving  efforts to avoid embarrassment or vulnerability
face restoration  strategy used to preserve autonomy and avoid loss of face
individualism  a cultural value that places emphasis on the individual over the group
collectivism  a cultural value that places emphasis on the group over the individual
face management  the protection of one's face
avoiding  staying away from disagreements
obliging  satisfying the needs of others
compromising  using give-and-take to achieve a middle-road resolution
dominating  using influence or authority to make decisions
integrating  collaborating with others to find solutions
feminism  focusing on women's social position and desiring to end oppression based on sex
standpoint  an achieved position based on a social location that lends an interpretative aspect to a person's life
partial  a recognition that no one has a complete view of the social hierarchy
outsider within  a person in a normally marginalized social position who has gained access to a more privileged location
accuracy  the ability to see more than what's available to one's own specific social location
situated knowledges  what anyone knows is grounded in context and circumstance
sexual division of labor  allocation of work on the basis of sex
essentialism  the belief that all women are essentially the same, all men are essentially the same, and the two differ from each other
dualisms  organizing things around pairs of opposites
dominant group  the group that holds the power in a given culture
sex  biological category divided into male and female
gender  social category consisting of the learned behaviors that constitute masculinity and femininity for a given culture
gender polarization  viewing men and women as polar opposites
second shift  the phenomenon of working women putting in eight hours on the job and another day's work at home
accommodation  adjusting, modifying, or regulating behavior in response to others
Social Identity Theory  a theory that proposes a person's identity is shaped by the groups to which he or she belongs
in-groups  groups in which a person feels he or she belongs
out-groups  groups in which a person feels he or she does not belong
perception  process of attending to and interpreting a message
evaluation  process of judging a conversation
norms  expectations of behavior in conversations
convergence  strategy used to adapt to another's behavior
indirect stereotyping  imposing outdated and rigid assumptions of a cultural group upon that group
divergence  strategy used to accentuate the verbal and nonverbal differences between communicators
over-accommodation  attempt to overdo efforts in regulating, modifying, or responding to others
sensory overaccommodation  overly adapting to others who are perceived as limited in their abilities (physical, linguistic, or other)
dependency overaccommodation  occurs when speakers place listeners in a lower-status role
intergroup overaccommodation  occurs when speakers place listeners in cultural groups without acknowledging individual uniqueness







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