Chapter Summary

What constitutes sexual variance depends upon societal context; all societies regulate sex, but not all regulate it in the same way.

If prostitution is considered to be the oldest profession, surely there must be substantial reasons for its tenacity. Lauer and Lauer find these reasons within a set of structural and social psychological factors. On the American scene at least, the former includes a traditional rejection of nonmarital sex, disfavor of open discussion of sex, the relatively late age at which Americans marry, plus a highly mobile population. The latter includes tolerant attitudes by officials and sizable public acceptance of an ideology that condones male sexual needs being partially met through prostitutes. Even so, prostitution is defined as a major form of sexual deviance, and prostitutes have been stigmatized under whatever name they go by-streetwalker, madam, call girl, or lady of the night. When examined in terms of quality of life, the profession comes up short. It is pointed out that prostitutes tend to age quickly and to suffer from physical abuse, loss of human dignity, dehumanization, and exploitation. In turn, these unsatisfactory life conditions are expressed through isolation, drug use, attempted suicide, and exploitation. The authors observe, however, that one must distinguish between different kinds of prostitutes (streetwalkers, call girls, and brothel workers) when discussing the life experience of the prostitute. Child prostitution is a real problem in some world countries. Both social structural and social psychological factors contribute to the maintenance of prostitution.

In recent years, it has been argued that prostitution should be decriminalized, but the text's discussion shows that this will not completely solve the problem; decriminalization could be an initial step, but resolution will come only when women from lower socioeconomic positions have opportunities for economic success, when the economy does not force men to spend long periods of time away from their homes, and when the national ideology about sexuality no longer provides a basis for tolerance.

The concept of pornography is a difficult one for people to agree about. Different and incompatible definitions of pornography have been advanced by jurists, psychologists, religious leaders, and Supreme Court justices. Unfortunately, the extent of disagreement over what constitutes pornography has complicated the study of this phenomenon.

In an effort to offer some insights into this area of sexual conduct, Lauer and Lauer distinguish between pornography, erotica, and obscenity. Obscenity, in particular, has a long history of legal controversy, including several Supreme Court cases. Two very recent studies of mass media are summarized to demonstrate the extent of pornography in adult films and in various magazines.

The social consequences of pornography, erotica, and obscenity are then examined by the authors. Here, again, significant disagreement emerges when researchers discuss how the quality of life is affected by the presence of such materials. To some, these films and magazines are seen as a safety valve, an outlet to reduce sexual tension; however, others view such materials as offering models for sexual aggression.

Having examined both sides of the issue of pornography in public life, the authors take the position that such materials do have adverse effects on the quality of life. They particularly address exploitation of children in pornographic films as an area where human beings too young to give informed consent are depicted in various ways for the gratification of the viewer.

Additionally, the authors focus on pornography and obscenity that degrade women. Even in the absence of violence, the female subjects were not treated with the dignity and respect to which all people are entitled.

Last, the authors turn to violence in pornography as a factor in their attitude. They advance the hypothesis that violent films increase the viewer's aggressive behavior. In support of this hypothesis, studies by Donnerstein and Boeringer include a series of experiments that demonstrated higher levels of aggression in the male subjects after witnessing pornographic materials containing violence.

Having established his attitude toward these materials, the authors examine the structural factors involved in the supply of these materials. The substantial profit to be made in these areas is a formidable reason for their persistence. In addition to the significant economic returns on the sale of pornography, a constitutional issue also emerges. To what extent is censorship of these materials a violation of First Amendment rights? Since Americans do not express strong consensus on the dangers of such materials, the obstacles to passage of antipornography legislation is remote.

A number of steps could be taken to reduce the flow of pornographic materials in general and violent pornography in particular: education at an early age about the way in which pornography degrades women; mobilization of protest groups; stricter enforcement of existing obscenity laws; citizens' willingness to pressure government for more action; and research on the customers of pornographic materials.

In American society, we tend to think of sexual gratification in terms of heterosexual relationships. Homosexuals are sexually attracted to members of the same sex. Homophobia refers to an irrational fear of homosexuals. Estimates of the incidence of homosexuality in the American population vary. For example, Rogers and Turner examined five national surveys conducted between 1970 and 1990 and estimated that five to seven percent of American men have some homosexual contact during adulthood, although most of them also report some heterosexual activity. One of the most recent and comprehensive studies conducted by Laumann and his colleagues found that 2.7 percent of sexually active men and 1.3 percent of sexually active women had a homosexual experience in the past year. Lauer and Lauer indicate that it seems safe to conclude that about three to four percent of American men and two to three percent of American women are exclusively homosexual.

Some observers believe that homosexuality is genetically programmed into some people; researchers have found differences between homosexuals and heterosexuals, including aspects of brain structure and genetic differences in a region of the X chromosome. Those who argue for a sociocultural basis for homosexuality argue that it is a learned pattern of behavior. Some researchers have found that homosexuals have had disturbed family relationships, while others focus on the norms of people's peers during adolescence. The overall evidence suggests that there are both genetic and sociocultural factors involved with homosexuality.

What are the consequences of homosexuality? The quality of life, assert the authors, is diminished for homosexuals because of certain myths, lack of opportunity, exploitation, negative sanctions, fear, and various emotional and psychological problems.

Five common myths, or false beliefs, are that (1) homosexuals have characteristics that are normal for the opposite sex; (2) they are incapable of having heterosexual relationships; (3) individuals typically become homosexual by being seduced by another homosexual; (4) the homosexual will be attracted to anyone of his or her own sex; and (5) homosexuals do not form the same kind of long-term attachments as heterosexuals.

The American ideology of equality of opportunity contradicts the norms and laws about the hiring of homosexuals. Homosexuals are subjected to numerous negative sanctions. The admitted homosexual often suffers serious consequences in the occupational arena, ranging from official termination of employment to unofficial harassment by co-workers. Charges of mental illness and incidents of physical assaults exact a psychological toll on the homosexual, as does the constant threat of arrest due to state or local ordinances. Fear is a problem for many homosexuals, and many are the victims of assault. As a result of accepting the stigmatizing labels applied by society, the homosexual is likely to feel guilty, and self-acceptance may be a serious problem. The homosexual may also experience considerable stress.

Without the societal reaction to homosexuality that we find in America, we could not speak of homosexual behavior as a social problem. The norms of our society define homosexuality as deviant and this attitude is reflected in America's legal structure. The homosexual's stressful environment is maintained by social psychological factors that support and reinforce the norms and institutional arrangements.

The position we take about how to deal with the problem of homosexuality will depend on our view of the basic nature of the problem. There are efforts to change the legal status of homosexuals. The authors point out that there is a need for a good deal more research and for educational programs.