Communicating at Work: Principles and Practices for Business and Professions, 7/e
Ronald B. Adler
Jeanne Marquardt Elmhorst
"I" language | Language in which the communicator describes his or her feelings, needs, and behaviors without accusing others. (5)
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"You" language | Language that often begins with the word you and accuses or evaluates the other person.
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Action-oriented listening style | A listening style in which the listener's primary concern is understanding and organizing facts to accomplish a task or get a job done. See also Content-oriented listening style, People-oriented listening style. (4)
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Advising | A type of listening in which the listener responds with ideas and suggestions about what the speaker should think or do. (4)
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Agenda | A list of topics to be covered in a meeting. Agendas also usually note the meeting's time, length, and location and the members who will attend. Complete agendas also provide background information and outcome goals. (9)
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Analyzing | A type of listening in which the listener responds with his or her insights about what is being said. (4)
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Anchor | A listener's preexisting position on an issue being advocated. (14)
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Audioconferencing | The holding of a conference among three or more geographically separated persons by means of simultaneous telephone connections. (1)
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Audition interview | A type of interview in which a prospective employer asks the candidate to demonstrate (rather than describe) his/her ability to perform a job-related task. (7)
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Authoritarian leadership style | A leadership style in which the designated leader uses legitimate, coercive, and reward power to control members. (8)
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Authority rule | A group decision-making method in which a designated leader makes a final decision, either with or without consulting group members. (8)
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Bar chart | A chart consisting of horizontal bars that depict the values of several items in comparative terms. (12)
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Bargaining orientation | An approach to negotiation in which competitive communicators assume that one side's gains must be matched by the other side's losses. (5)
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Bargaining orientation | An approach to negotiation in which competitive communicators assume that one side's gains must be matched by the other side's losses. (5)
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Biased language | Any statement that seems to be objective but actually conceals the speaker's emotional attitude. (3)
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Bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) | A job requirement that is deemed reasonably necessary for the performance of a particular job. In employment interviewing, only questions exploring BFOQs are lawful. (7)
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Brainstorming | An approach to idea generation that encourages free thinking and minimizes conformity. (8)
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Briefing | An informative presentation that succinctly informs listeners about a specific task at hand. (14)
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Cause-effect pattern | An organizational arrangement which shows that events happened or will happen as a result of certain circumstances. (11)
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Channel | The method or medium used to deliver a message (e.g., face-to-face communication, written memos, or the telephone). (1)
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Chronological context | Factors involving time and timing that affect the transmission and reception of a message. (1)
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Chronological pattern | An organizational arrangement that presents points according to their sequence in time. (11)
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Citations | A type of support in which the speaker quotes or paraphrases authoritative or articulate sources. (12)
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Claim | A statement asserting a fact or belief. (11)
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Closed questions | Questions that restrict the interviewee's responses, usually to yes or no, a number or item from preselected items, or an either-or response. (6)
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Co-culture | A group that has a clear identity within the encompassing culture. (2)
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Coercive power | The ability to influence others that arises because one can impose punishment or unpleasant consequences. (8)
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Cohesiveness | The degree to which group members feel part of and want to remain with the group. (8)
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Collectivist culture | A culture with strong social frameworks in which members of a group (such as an organization) are socialized to care for one another and for the group. (2)
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Column chart | A visual exhibit consisting of vertical columns that depict the quantity of one or more items at different times; used to show changes in quantity over time. (12)
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Communication climate | A metaphor used to describe the quality of relationships in an organization. (5)
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Communication climate | A metaphor used to describe the quality of relationships in an organization. (5)
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Comparative-advantages organizational plan | An organizational strategy that puts several alternatives side by side and shows why one is the best. (14)
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Comparisons | A type of support in which the speaker shows how one idea is similar to another; may be figurative or literal. (12)
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Compromise | An orientation toward negotiation which assumes that each side needs to lose at least some of what it was seeking. (5)
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Computer conferencing | A form of technology that allows individuals to work on a single document via computer, making changes that can be viewed by other participants. (1)
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Confirming messages | Messages that express value toward other persons. (5)
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Conflict phase | The second of Aubrey Fisher's four group problem-solving phases; characterized by members' taking strong stands that result in conflict within the group. (8)
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Connection power | The ability to influence that arises because of one's connections and associations inside and outside the organization. (8)
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Consensus | A decision-making method in which the group as a whole makes a decision that each member is willing to support. (8)
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Content messages | The dimension of messages that focus upon the topic under discussion. See also Relational messages. (1)
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Content messages | The dimension of messages that focus upon the topic under discussion. See also Relational messages. (1)
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Context | The environment of physical, social, chronological, and cultural variables that surrounds any process of communication. (1)
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Contingency approaches to leadership | Leadership theories which assert that the most effective leadership style is flexible, changing as needed with the context. (8)
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Counterfeit questions | Utterances that appear to be questions but are actually statements, forms of advice, traps, or attacks on the speaker. (4)
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Credibility | The persuasive force that comes from the audience's belief in and respect for the speaker. (14)
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Criteria satisfaction organizational plan | An organizational strategy that sets up standards (criteria) that the audience accepts and then shows how the speaker's idea or product meets the criteria. (14)
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Cultural context | Factors relating to the organizational or broader cultures of communicators that affect the transmission and reception of a message. (1)
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Culture | The set of values, beliefs, norms, customs, rules, and codes that lead people to define themselves as a distinct group, giving them a sense of commonality. (2)
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Decoding | The process of attaching meaning to words, symbols, or behaviors. (1)
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Democratic leadership style | A leadership style in which the designated leader encourages members to share decision making. (8)
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Democratic leadership style | A leadership style in which the designated leader encourages members to share decision making. (8)
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Designated leader | A leader whose title indicates a leadership role, either by appointment or by group selection. (8)
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Diagnostic interview | An interview in which professionals (e.g., doctors and lawyers) gather information on their patients' or clients' needs. (7)
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Direct question (in a group) | A question addressed (by name) to a particular individual. (9)
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Direct questions (in an interview) | Straightforward questions that ask exactly what the interviewer wants to know. (6)
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Disconfirming messages | Messages that show a lack of valuing for other persons. (5)
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Document conferencing | See Computer conferencing.
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Downward communication | Communication that flows from superiors to subordinates. (1)
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Electronic mail (e-mail) | A communication system whereby messages are exchanged via computer networks. (1)
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E-mail | See Electronic mail.
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Emergence phase | The third of Aubrey Fisher's four group problem-solving phases; characterized by an end to conflict and emergence of harmony within the group. (8)
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Emergent leader | A leader chosen by the group, either officially or informally. (8)
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Emergent leader | A leader chosen by the group, either officially or informally. (8)
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Employment interview | An interview designed to judge the qualifications and desirability of a candidate for a job. (7)
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Encoding | The intentional process of creating a message. (1)
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Equivocal terms | Words with more than one meaning. Equivocation can lead to unintentional misunderstandings. In contrast, strategic ambiguity is often used in business to promote harmony and soften the blow of unpleasant messages. (3)
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Examples | Brief illustrations that back up or explain a claim. (12)
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Exit interview | An interview designed to discover why an employee is leaving an organization. (7)
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Expert opinion | A decision-making method in which a single person perceived as an expert makes a decision for the group. (8)
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Expert power | The ability to influence that arises because of one's knowledge, ability, and expertise in a particular area. (8)
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Explanation | An informative presentation that increases listeners' understanding of a subject. (14)
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Extemporaneous presentation | A type of delivery in which the major ideas are planned and rehearsed but the speech is given spontaneously from notes. (13)
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External noise | (Also called physical noise.) Sounds or physical environmental factors (smells, barriers that block vision) that interfere with communication. (1)
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Factual questions | Questions that ask for verifiable, factual information rather than opinion. (6)
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Feedback | The recognizable response of a receiver to a sender's message. (1)
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Flip chart | A large pad of paper, attached to an easel, that is used to create and/or display visuals. (12)
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Formal communication networks | Officially designated paths of communication designed by management to indicate who should communicate with whom. (1)
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Functional roles | Types of behavior that are necessary if a group is to do its job effectively. See also Task roles and Relational roles. (8)
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Funnel sequence | A sequence of interview questions that begins with a broad question and grows increasingly more specific. (6)
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General purpose | A broad indication of the purpose of a speech, generally to inform, persuade, or entertain. (10)
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Graph | A visual display that shows the correlation between two quantities. (12)
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Groupthink | A condition in which group members are unwilling to critically examine ideas because of their desire to maintain harmony. (8)
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Hidden agenda | A group member's personal goal that is not made public. (8)
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High-context culture | A culture that relies heavily on subtle, often nonverbal cues to convey meaning and maintain social harmony. (2)
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High-level abstractions | Terms that cover a broad range of possible objects or events without describing them in much detail. (3)
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Highly structured interview | An interview that consists of a standardized list of questions, sometimes in precise order and wording, as in research interviews. (6)
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Horizontal (lateral) communication | Communication in which messages flow between members of an organization who have equal power or responsibility. (1)
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Hypothetical questions | Questions that ask an interviewee how he or she might respond under certain circumstances. (6)
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Impromptu presentation | A type of delivery in which the speaker has little or no preparation time before presenting his or her remarks. (13)
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Indirect questions | Questions that get at information the interviewer wants to know without asking for it directly. (6)
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Individualistic culture | A culture whose members are inclined to put their own interests and those of their immediate families ahead of social concerns. (2)
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Informal communication networks | Patterns of interaction that are based on proximity, friendships, and shared interests. (1)
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Information power | The ability to influence that arises because of one's access to otherwise obscure information. (8)
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Instant messaging (IM) | An Internet-based tool that allows the exchange of typed messages between two or more people in real time. (1)
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Interjection | A word or phrase inserted into a presentation to highlight an idea's importance or placement. (14)
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Interview | A two-party somewhat structured conversation in which at least one person has a specific purpose. (6)
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Intranet | An infrastructure that allows people within an organization to exchange information in digital form. (1)
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Inverted funnel sequence | A sequence of interview questions that begins with specific, closed questions and introduces increasingly broader questions. (6)
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Investigative interview | An interview designed to discover the causes of an incident or problem. (7)
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Jargon | Specialized terminology used by members of a particular group. The word is used in a derogatory sense when applied to language that is overly obscure. (3)
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Laissez-faire leadership style | A leadership style in which the leader gives up power and transforms a group into a leaderless collection of equals. (8)
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Lateral communication | See Horizontal communication.
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Latitude of acceptance | The range of positions or arguments a person would accept with little or no persuasion. (14)
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Latitude of noncommitment | The range of positions or arguments a person neither accepts nor rejects. (14)
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Latitude of rejection | The range of positions or arguments a person opposes. (14)
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Leading questions | Questions that direct the interviewee to answer in a certain way, often by indicating the answer the interviewer wants to hear. (6)
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Legitimate power | The ability to influence that arises because of one's position (e.g., judge, elder, professor, president). (8)
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Life-cycle theory of leadership | An approach to understanding leadership which suggests that a leader's attention to tasks and relationships should vary depending on the organizational maturity of subordinates. (8)
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Listen-and-tell performance appraisal style | An approach to performance appraisal in which the interviewer (usually a supervisor) first listens to the subordinate and then gives feedback on the subordinate's performance. (7)
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Lose-lose orientation | An approach to negotiation in which one party's perceived loss leads to an outcome with negative consequences for the other parties. (5)
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Low-context culture | A culture that uses language primarily to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas as clearly and logically as possible. (2)
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Low-level abstractions | Highly specific statements that refer directly to objects or events that can be observed. (3)
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Majority vote | A decision-making method in which a vote is taken and the item with the most votes is the one accepted. (8)
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Manuscript presentation | A type of delivery in which the speaker reads word for word from prepared remarks. (13)
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Meeting | Any focused conversation that has a specific agenda; usually, but not always, scheduled in advance. (9)
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Memorized presentation | A type of delivery in which the speech is memorized and recited word for word from memory. (13)
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Message | Any symbol or behavior from which others create meaning or which triggers a response. (1)
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Minority decision | A decision-making method in which a few members make a decision for the whole group. (8)
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Moderately structured interview | A flexible interview in which major topics, their order, questions, and probes are planned but not rigidly adhered to. (6)
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Motivated-sequence organizational plan | An organizational strategy that presents a topic in terms of five sequential concepts: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action. (14)
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Negotiation | Discussion of specific proposals for the purpose of finding a mutually acceptable agreement or settlement. (5)
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Networks | See Communication networks.
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Noise | Any factor that interferes with a message. Such factors are also called barriers or interference. See also External noise, Physiological noise, and Psychological noise. (1)
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Nominal group technique (NGT) | A five-phase method for giving group members' ideas equal chance at consideration. (9)
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Nonstructured interview | An interview that consists of a topical agenda but no planned, specific questions. (6)
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Nonverbal communication | Communication that consists of messages sent by nonlinguistic means, either visually, physically, or vocally. (3)
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Norms | Informal rules about what behavior is appropriate in a group. Explicit norms are made clear by speaking about them or writing them out. Implicit norms are not openly discussed but are known and understood by group members. (8)
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Open questions | Questions that invite a broad, detailed response. See also Closed questions. (6)
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Opinion questions | Questions that seek the respondent's judgment about a topic. (6)
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Organizational chart | A drawing or model that shows the levels of authority and reporting relationships in an organization. (1)
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Organizational culture | A relatively stable picture of an organization that is shared by its members. (2)
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Orientation phase | The first of Aubrey Fisher's four problem-solving phases of groups; characterized by tentative statements and getting-acquainted types of communication. (8)
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Overhead question | A question directed at all members of a group, inviting a response from any member. (9)
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Panel interview | An interview conducted by a group of questioners with whom the candidate will work, who are commonly from different levels within an organization. (7)
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Paralanguage | Nonlinguistic vocal qualities such as rate, pitch, volume, and pauses. (3)
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Paraphrasing | Listening to another and restating what has been said in your own words. Both feelings and factual content can be paraphrased. (4)
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Parliamentary procedure | An established set of rules that govern the process of conducting meetings. Codified in Robert's Rules of Order.. (9)
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Passive listening | Listening characterized by a mixture of silence and prompts (e.g., "Uh-huh," "Really?," "Tell me more") that invite the speaker to keep going. (4)
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People-oriented listening style | A style of listening in which the listener is most concerned with creating and maintaining positive interpersonal relationships. See also Action-oriented listening style, Content-oriented listening style, Time-oriented listening style. (4)
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Performance appraisal interview | An interview, usually conducted by a superior, in which the quality of a subordinate's work is discussed. (7)
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Persuasion | The act of motivating an audience, through communication, to voluntarily change a particular belief. (14)
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Physical context | The environmental factors that affect the transmission and reception of a message. (1)
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Physiological noise | Any physiological factor that interferes with communication (e.g., hearing disorders, speech impediments). (1)
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Pictogram | A visual support that employs an artistic or pictorial variation of a bar, column, or pie chart. (12)
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Pie chart | A round chart that is divided into segments to illustrate percentages of a whole. (12)
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Power distance | A measure of a culture's acceptance (high or low) of differences in authority. (2)
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Presentation software | Computer software programs (e.g., Microsoft PowerPoint) that create displays used in presentations. Such programs typically include capabilities for creating special audio, visual, and transition effects, speaker notes and handouts. (12)
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Primary questions | Interview questions that introduce a new topic or a new area within a topic. See also Secondary questions. (6)
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Problem-oriented messages | Messages that aim at meeting the needs of both the sender and the other party. (5)
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Problem-solution pattern (organizational plan) | An organizational arrangement in which the speaker first convinces the audience that a problem exists and then presents a plan to solve it. (11, 14)
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Problem-solving performance appraisal style | An approach to performance appraisal in which the employee and manager work together to identify areas of concern and appropriate solutions. (7)
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Psychological noise | Any force within a receiver's mind that interferes with accurate encoding or decoding (e.g., prejudices, emotions, biases, defensiveness). (1)
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Questioning | Listening responses that seek additional information from a speaker. See also Analyzing, Advising, Supporting, and Paraphrasing. (4)
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Rapport talk | Language that creates connections, establishes goodwill, and builds community; more typically used by women. (3)
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Receiver | Any person who perceives a message and attaches meaning to it, whether the message was intended for that person or not. (1)
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Referent power | The ability to influence because one is respected or liked by the group. (8)
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Reflective-thinking sequence | A seven-step problem-solving approach developed by John Dewey. (8)
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Reinforcement phase | The fourth of Aubrey Fisher's four group problem-solving phases; characterized by members' active endorsement of group decisions. (8)
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Relational messages | The dimension of messages that focus on how communicators feel about one another. See also Content messages. (1)
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Relational roles | Functional roles that help facilitate smooth interaction among members. (8)
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Relay question | In groups, a question asked by one member which the leader then addresses to the entire group. (9)
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Relevancy challenge | A request that asks a group member to explain how his or her seemingly off-track idea relates to the group task. (9)
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Report | An informative presentation that describes the state of an operation. (14)
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Report talk | Language that conveys information, facts, knowledge, and competence; more typically used by men. (3)
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Research interview | An interview designed to gather data on which to base a decision. (7)
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Reverse question | In groups, a question asked of the leader which the leader refers back to the person who asked it. (9)
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Reward power | The ability to influence that arises because one can induce desirable consequences or rewards. (8)
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Rhetorical question | A question with an obvious answer, which does not call for an overt response. (11)
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Risky shift | A type of harmful conformity in which groups take positions that are more extreme (on the side of either caution or risk) than the positions of individual members. (8)
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Roles | Patterns of behavior expected of individual group members. (8)
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Scannable resume | A resume prepared in plain text format with clear key words and phrases to be "read" and evaluated by software to screen potential job candidates. (7)
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Secondary questions | Interview questions that seek additional information about a topic that is under discussion. See also Primary questions. (6)
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Self-directed work teams | Groups that manage their own behavior to accomplish a task. (8)
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Sender | Any person who sends a message, whether intentionally or unintentionally. (1)
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Signpost | In presentations, a word, phrase, or sentence that tells listeners how new information relates to the topic. (14)
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Sincere questions | Requests for information that are genuinely meant to help the listener understand. See also Counterfeit questions. (4)
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Social context | Relational factors that affect the transmission and reception of a message. (1)
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Spatial pattern | An organizational arrangement that presents material according to its physical location. (11)
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Specific purpose | A concrete statement of what response a speaker is seeking as the result of his or her remarks. (10)
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Statistics | Numbers used to represent an idea. (12)
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Stories | Detailed descriptions of incidents that illustrate a point; may be factual or hypothetical. (12)
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Style approach to leadership | An approach to studying leadership based on the assumption that the designated leader's style of communication affects the group's effectiveness. (8)
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Supporting | A type of listening in which the listener responds with reassurance or comfort. (4)
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Supporting material | Material that backs up claims in a presentation. (12)
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Survey interview | An interview conducted with a number of people to gather information for conclusions, interpretations, or future action. (7)
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Task roles | Functional roles that are needed to accomplish a group's mission. (8)
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Team | A small, interdependent collection of people with a common identity who interact with one another, usually face-to-face over time, in order to reach a goal. (8)
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Tell-and-listen performance appraisal style | An approach to performance appraisal in which the manager first describes his or her assessment and then listens to the employee's input. (7)
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Tell-and-sell performance appraisal style | An approach to performance appraisal in which the manager states his or her evaluation of the employee and then tries to persuade the employee of its accuracy. (7)
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Thesis statement | A single sentence that summarizes the central idea of a presentation. (10)
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Time-oriented listening style | A listening style in which the listener thinks most about efficiency and prefers a fast pace. Such listeners often appear impatient. See also Action-oriented listening style, Content-oriented listening style, People-oriented listening style. (4)
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Topical pattern | An organizational arrangement in which ideas are grouped around logical themes or divisions of the subject. (11)
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Training | An informative presentation that teaches listeners how to perform a task. (14)
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Trait approach to leadership | A leadership theory based on the belief that all leaders possess common traits that make them effective. (8)
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Transition | A statement used between parts of a presentation to help listeners understand the relationship of the parts to one another and to the thesis. (11)
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Transparency | A clear sheet used with an overhead projector to cast an image on a screen. (12)
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Trigger words | Terms that have such strong emotional associations that they set off an intense emotional reaction in certain listeners. (3)
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Tunnel sequence | A series of interview questions, all of equal depth. See also Funnel sequence, Inverted funnel sequence. (6)
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Uncertainty avoidance | A measure of how accepting a culture is of a lack of predictability. (2)
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Upward communication | Communication that flows from subordinates to superiors. (1)
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Videoconferencing | The holding of a meeting or conference by means of audio and visual transmissions that enable two or more geographically separated persons to see, hear, and talk to each other. (1)
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Virtual team | A team which conducts most or all of its work-via electronic channels. (8)
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Win-win orientation | A collaborative approach to negotiation which assumes that solutions can be reached that meet the needs of all parties. (5)
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Work group | A small, interdependent collection of people with a common identity who interact with one another, usually face-to-face over time, in order to reach a goal. (8)
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