Chapter Summary

Integrative Efforts

Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) is known for introducing European classical sociological theory to the United States and for formulating his own grand classical theory. Moreover, Parsons had a profound impact on American sociology through his influence on many graduate students who became significant theorists in their own right.

Parsons strove for integration in sociological theory in a number of ways. First, he attempted to unify the social sciences at Harvard under the rubric of the Department of Social Relations. In addition, Parsons clearly delineated his levels of social analysis and argued that the integration of these various levels was of profound importance for stability in the social world. His attempt at integration is somewhat weakened by his inability to reconcile different theoretical orientations over the course of his career.

General Principles and Philosophical Roots

Parsons set out to formulate a general action theory that would be based on voluntarism and would consider the causal relevance of cultural phenomena such as ideas, norms, and goals. In addition, his action theory would consider how higher-order systems would emerge from lower-order systems, and how these emergent systems incorporated their component elements. Parsons argued further that his action theory was composed of three central concepts: the unit act, verstehen, and the aforementioned voluntarism. In Parsons's view, the unit act was composed of actors, situations, conditions, means, norms, and values, while verstehen was to be employed as a way of understanding action from a subjective point of view.

In connection with his action theory, Parsons also formulated the pattern variables, which are basically sets of choices any actor must make in a given situation. He also used them to analyze larger-scale phenomena, such as patterns of norms within entire cultural systems. The pattern variables, in brief, are:

• affectivity-affective neutrality
• specificity-diffuseness
• universalism-particularism
• ascription-achievement
• self-collectivity

Parsons eventually turned away from action theory toward a structural-functionalism that had at its core the concepts of functional imperatives, status-roles, need-dispositions, and value orientations.

AGIL: The Four Functional Imperatives

In order to survive, any system must perform four functions. Adaptation refers to a system's need to adapt to its environment, and to transform an environment in order to meet the needs of the system. Goal attainment refers to a system's need to create and achieve goals, while integration refers to the need of a system to coordinate the interrelationships among its component parts. Latency, or pattern maintenance, refers to the need of a system to provide and renew the motivation of individuals and the patterns of culture that motivate people. This is Parsons's famous AGIL schema.

Parsons links the four functional imperatives to four action systems. The behavioral organism performs the adaptation function, while the personality system performs the function of goal-attainment. The social system performs the function of integration, while the cultural system performs the function of latency.

Parsons also linked the four functional imperatives to four subsystems in society. The economy performs the adaptation function through labor, production, and allocation. The polity, or political system, performs the function of goal-attainment by determining social goals and mobilizing resources for the achievement of these goals. The fiduciary system (which Parsons construes as such institutions as the family and education) performs the function of latency by conveying norms and values and socializing people. Lastly, the societal community (e.g., law) regulates the relationship between the other parts of society. Parsons considered himself a cultural determinist, and, therefore, he devoted much of his attention to cultural forces such as norms, values, knowledge, symbols, and ideas.

Finally, one must recall that Parsons was primarily concerned with order and integration in society. In other words, Parsons used the AGIL schema at various levels of analysis for the purposes of studying the ordered structure of society and its maintenance. Many of his detractors criticized him for this emphasis on social statics, which prompted Parsons to direct his intellectual efforts toward elaborating a theory of social change.

Parsons's Evolutionary Theory and the Generalized Media of Interchange

In order to deal with this criticism, Parsons developed a theory of evolutionary change that was based in many ways on biological theories of evolution. The process of differentiation involves the adaptive upgrading of social subsystems over the course of evolution. In other words, evolution involves the creation of new subsystems that are better able than their predecessors to adapt to changing environments. In essence, the new subsystems become more highly specialized and therefore more differentiated.

This process of differentiation, however, creates new problems of integration or coordination of the new subsystems within society as a whole. Evolution thus requires changes in the allocation of abilities and skills (e.g., a move from ascription to achievement), as well a more generalized system of values that is able to encompass the greater variety of goals and functions brought about by differentiation.

Parsons did not view evolution as a unilinear process. He acknowledged that some societies, for a variety of reasons, could deteriorate or collapse. Parsons did, however, identify three, highly simplified categories for classifying a society's course of evolution: primitive, intermediate, and modern.

Finally, Parsons also considered social dynamism as occurring through the generalized media of interchange within and among the four action systems. The forms of generalized media, such as power, influence, money, and value commitments, allowed Parsons to study the ways in which some subsystems are able to interact with and shape other subsystems, as well as society as a whole. For example, the creation, expenditure, and circulation of power (which belongs to the polity) may allow the political system to shape society as a whole. This provided Parsons with greater insight into how societies change.