LECTURE OUTLINE: ISSUES AND RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
One Computer in the Classroom
A recent study shows that the typical U.S. school now has one computer for every four students, but most computers reside in a lab, so the teacher only has one in the classroom.
Seven suggestions can help classroom teachers use computers effectively:
Select software according to the needs of students.
A primary grade teacher's first strategy may be to teach keyboarding skills.
Beginning typists can use software programs such as Type to Learn Junior and Kid Keys 2.0, while more advanced typists can practice with Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing 15 and Typing Tutor 10.
Students who need problem-solving skills can use programs such as Where in the World Is Carmen Sandiego? and Science Seekers: Hidden Rocks to improve their critical thinking skills.
Students who need to study and research information about the United States can use AppleWorks or Access.
A teacher might use a drill and practice program like MindTwister to improve students' math skills.
Collect the appropriate equipment for the classroom environment.
Use projectors, LCD panels with overhead projector, T or Y adapters and television monitors, and video scan converters.
Use an elevated television or monitor to increase visibility of the computer screen image.
Organize the classroom.
Determine the optimum seating arrangement.
Determine the flow of student traffic within the classroom.
Determine the other equipment students will be using in the classroom.
Use the team approach.
Team pupils who are knowledgeable about computers to assist the teacher and other students.
Teams can give directions, solve problems, and introduce new software.
Know the software's time factor.
Some computer programs have short time frames, while others are open-ended and time-consuming.
Determine whether the program saves the game or activity instantaneously or at the end of the level.
Encourage group participation.
The teacher's interactions with the class will determine how free students feel to participate in class lessons involving computers.
Structure interactive, participatory problem-solving skills with groups that incorporate computer games such as Puzzle Tanks.
Students should work at the computer for a designated time interval as indicated on a computer use schedule.
Integrate the computer into the classroom.
The software should complement, not replace, the standard curriculum.
Four different software programs are discussed for classroom integration.
Grolier Hollywood High is a program to improve writing skills and creative expression through creation of scripts, characters, expressions, and scenes for plays.
Mighty Math Calculating Crew helps students improve their math problem solving skills in a simulation program.
Crosscountry is a social studies series, with interactive, truck-driving simulations across the United States, Canada, and California.
The Science Court series teaches science concepts such as motion, machines, water cycle, fossils, and inertia to elementary and middle-school students through mock trial demonstrations and explanations.
Computer Lab
When setting up the computer lab, design is an important consideration.
The computer lab's design is determined by the number of computers, room size, number of peripheral devices such as printers and scanners, and the instructor's teaching style.
Students should have an unobstructed view of the projection screen.
Students can work collaboratively in pairs, share resources, and work on projects simultaneously.
A computer lab is invaluable for teaching students word processing, desktop publishing, math, science, CAD, multimedia production, and report preparation.
Computer labs have drawbacks such as cost, technical maintenance, user rules, security issues, and viruses.
Because of the lack of flexibility of standard computer labs, many schools are moving in the direction of wireless mobile labs.
A typical wireless mobile lab has 16, 24, or 32 laptops locked inside a cart's wireless hub, which is plugged into the school's network by a regular network cable.
Companies such as Dell and Apple currently sell mobile wireless laptop labs with printers, CD drives, and DVD drives.
Using a wireless setup, schools can provide access to computers when and where they are needed.
Wireless labs take up less space than standard computer labs.
A problem with wireless labs is security, as hackers can easily intercept data on wireless networks.
Computer theft is also an issue in wireless labs.
Security
An urgent need exists for computer security, as computer owners must take steps to prevent theft and inappropriate use of their equipment.
Computer theft is a growing global problem costing billions of dollars annually.
Most computer facilities have some kind of security system, a means of confirming the identities of persons who want to use the system and rejecting unauthorized entry; authorized users are issued special cards, keys, passwords, or account numbers.
Schools may have security that consists of a list of student names, and students can access computer rooms with keys and computers with passwords, all of which may be passed on to unauthorized users.
Assigning access codes that are read by the computer from pass cards or smart cards with the person's picture, barcode scan, and microchip can increase security.
Requiring every individual to enter a special code along with a pass card can increase security.
Unscrupulous individuals have found ways to steal and distribute passwords and spread viruses.
Desktop security programs such as Fortress 101 and Foolproof are necessary in school computer labs where computers are subject to abuse by students.
Computers should also be safeguarded against natural disasters such as power surges, fires, and earthquakes through surge protectors, back-up disks, and cartridge back-up drives such as a Zip drive.
As the number of computers in schools increases, teachers and schools must be more vigilant about computer use and security.
The more complicated a computer system is, the more costly it is to provide security for the system.
Software Piracy
Globally, companies are losing billions of dollars annually to piracy, the illegal copying of software.
The Software and Information Industry Association (SIAA) reports finding many forms of software piracy on the Internet, including pirated software for free downloading.
In the 1980s, one of the most popular computer programs was a copy program that was able to duplicate protected software.
It is estimated that 30 to 50 percent of a typical school's software has been illegally copied and shared.
Software pirates rationalize their stealing by asserting that software developers receive free publicity through illegal copies; software is grossly overpriced and fair game for piracy; copying software is for the greater good of the public; and the cost of copying software is borne by the developer who has money to spare.
The unauthorized duplication of software violates the federal copyright law, deprives developers of the revenue they deserve, and may lead to criminal penalties such as jail or fines.
Software developers have produced elaborate copy protection schemes and command override programs to combat piracy, but hackers can easily create programs that circumvent copy protections.
Fingerprinting, an emerging protection method, examines a computer system's individual configuration to collect information that can be used as the system's unique identification; the data are selectively encrypted together to build a unique identifier in the program that sets off a "time bomb" in the program if the user does not pay, and the program erases itself.
Schools are a major culprit in software piracy, citing limited funds and numbers of copies to share among students, so that educational software has become less lucrative for manufacturers.
Actions can be taken to curb software piracy in schools, including warning and punishing violators, keeping software locked away, using restricted storage areas, and limiting access.
Teachers can discuss criminal computer cases and laws with students, as well as school policies regarding computer break-ins.
L. Schools should find budgetary solutions and community support for buying software and network their machines to increase software sharing.
Unequal Access
A major challenge to education in the twenty-first century is unequal access to the computers due to income and race/ethnicity.
The digital divide is "the difference between those who have computers and high-tech gadgets in general and those who do not" (Freedman, 2003).
A computer gives the student abilities to search the Internet, create better reports with graphics and sound, and motivates them to do better in school.
A digital divide exists because digital access is still uneven, with reports indicating that higher income means a higher percentage of computer access.
Minorities and people with disabilities or less education do not have as much access to computers as other groups.
Teachers must be sensitive to students' needs, integrate technology into the classroom, and work to provide computer access to students who do not have computers.
Health Risks Using Computers
Ways to reduce the risk of injury caused by computers are increasing, in the form of wrist pads, antiglare screens, and ergonomic keyboards and trackballs.
Repetitive strain injuries are a serious medical problem.
Computer monitors, like other electrical devices, generate electrical and magnetic fields in a very low frequency, which raises debates about electromagnetic emissions causing health problems such as cancer; LCD monitors are being used more in schools, as they do not have emissions problems.
Most manufacturers support MPR-II (1990) or the stricter TCO guidelines for reducing electromagnetic emissions.
Computer-related injuries can be reduced or eliminated by following these suggestions:
Position the body so that the lower back is supported, thighs are horizontal, and the monitor is slightly below eye level, positioned to avoid any glare.
Work 18 to 28 inches from the monitor.
Avoid unnecessarily turning up the brightness on the monitor.
Do not overwork and take frequent breaks.
Spend time finding a proper chair for the computer.
Place frequently used equipment in close reach.
Make sure keyboard keys are easy to press.
Do not grip the mouse too tightly.
Never brace the wrist against the mousepad when typing.
Buy an appropriate input device such as a drawing tablet, if graphics are frequently used.
Computer-Assisted Instruction Research Findings
Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) has been used for over twenty-five years.
CAI or computer-assisted instruction refers to applications specifically designed to teach a variety of subject areas to children and adults, in which users receive feedback from the computer and control the sequencing of the subject matter.
The research literature contains many studies on computer-assisted learning.
Some studies show that using CAI to supplement instruction is superior to traditional instruction alone.
Kulik's series of meta-analysis studies showed higher achievement for students who used computers, but others have criticized the research and results.
Roblyer et al. summarized previous literature reviews of computer-based instruction and found higher achievement for college-age and adult students than for elementary and secondary students. The greatest achievement gains were in computer use in science, math, reading, and cognitive skills, yielding about half the effect. CAI software programs approximated equal effectiveness to traditional learning, and lower-achieving students showed more gains with CAI than students who were achieving at grade level (but the gains were not statistically significant).
Recent research findings on CAI and meta-analyses seem to indicate that use of CAI produces equal or greater achievement than traditional teaching methods, especially when teachers have a positive attitude toward technology; other studies found no significant impact on student achievement or attitudes.
In studying gender differences, researchers found that males use computers more than females, have more confidence and demonstrate a more positive attitude toward computers, but
Low-achieving females have more interest in computers than low-achieving males.
Male-oriented, violent computer games appeal to males.
Computers are linked to male-dominated occupations in math and science.
Magazines and newspapers depict more males using computers.
Females may be linked to computers in a secretarial role.
Many teachers encourage boys to use computers and discourage the girls.
Science simulations are beneficial because they are less costly, less dangerous, and less time-consuming than actual lab experiments.
Research findings on the use of word processing in classrooms is contradictory, with more research needed; word processing seems to improve quantity but not quality.
Learning-disabled students tend to benefit from CAI.
Research indicates that students have positive attitudes toward computers, but results were inconclusive on the effects of computer instruction and integration, as it relates to motivation and school achievement.
Generally, students perceive that using computers has a positive effect on their learning.
Distance learning research from the mid-1950s to the present found that there is no significant difference between traditional classroom learning and distance learning, but distance learners have a better attitude toward and greater satisfaction with learning than traditional learners; distance learners are usually abstract learners who are inwardly motivated.
Research on the effects of computers on education is problematic, with methodological flaws and insufficient data.
Several research generalizations can be made from the research.
The computer is a useful tool for simulations in science.
The computer is helpful for individualization.
The computer changes attitudes toward the computer, school, and school subjects.
The relationship between attitude toward computers and achievement is low.
There is no significant difference between traditional learning and distance learning.
Distance learners have a better attitude toward learning than traditional learners.
Word processing motivates children to write.
Gender studies have found that boys work more frequently with computers than girls do, a socially developed difference.
