Internal Affairs (104.0K) Introduction
to the Autonomic Nervous System - The autonomic nervous
system (ANS) is a functional division of the nervous system; it is composed
of portions of the central nervous system (CNS) and portions of the peripheral
nervous system (PNS).
- Preganglionic autonomic
neurons originate in the brain or spinal cord; postganglionic neurons originate
in ganglia outside the CNS.
- Smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and glands receive autonomic innervation.
- The involuntary
effectors are somewhat independent of their innervation and become hypersensitive
when their innervation is removed.
- Myocardial cells
are interconnected by electrical synapses, or gap junctions, to form
a functional syncytium with independent pacemaker activity.
- Single-unit smooth
muscles are characterized by gap junctions and pacemaker activity; multiunit
smooth muscles have few, if any, gap junctions, and thus their individual
cells must be stimulated separately by neurons.
Structure of
the Autonomic Nervous System - Preganglionic neurons
of the sympathetic (thoracolumbar) division originate in the spinal cord
(T1-L2).
- Many of these neurons
synapse with postganglionic neurons, whose cell bodies are located in
a trunk of sympathetic ganglia outside the spinal cord.
- Some preganglionic
neurons synapse in peripheral ganglia; included in these are the celiac,
superior mesenteric, and the inferior mesenteric ganglia.
- Some preganglionic
neurons innervate the adrenal medulla, which secretes epinephrine (and
some norepinephrine) into the blood in response to this stimulation.
- Preganglionic parasympathetic
neurons originate in the brain and in the sacral levels of the spinal cord.
- Preganglionic parasympathetic
neurons contribute to the oculomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal, and
vagus cranial nerves.
- Preganglionic neurons
of the vagus nerve are very long and synapse in terminal ganglia located
next to or within the innervated organ; short postganglionic neurons
then innervate the effector cells.
- The vagus nerves
provide parasympathetic innervation to the heart, lungs, esophagus,
stomach, liver, small intestine, and upper half of the large intestine.
- Parasympathetic
outflow from the sacral levels of the spinal cord innervates terminal
ganglia in the lower half of the large intestine, the rectum, and the
urinary and reproductive systems.
Functions of
the Autonomic Nervous System - The effects of sympathetic
and parasympathetic activity, together with those of hormones, help to maintain
homeostasis. The sympathetic division activates the body to "fight or flight"
through adrenergic effects; the parasympathetic division conserves and restores
the body's energy through cholinergic effects.
- All preganglionic autonomic
neurons are cholinergic (use acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter).
- All postganglionic
parasympathetic neurons are cholinergic.
- Most postganglionic
sympathetic neurons are adrenergic (use norepinephrine at their synapses).
- Sympathetic neurons
that innervate sweat glands and those that innervate blood vessels in
skeletal muscles are cholinergic.
- Adrenergic effects
include stimulation of the heart, vasoconstriction in the viscera and skin,
bronchodilation, and glycogenolysis in the liver.
- Cholinergic effects
of parasympathetic nerves are promoted by the drug muscarine and inhibited
by atropine.
- In organs with dual
innervation, the effects of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
can be antagonistic, complementary, or cooperative.
- The effects are
antagonistic in the heart and pupils.
- The effects are
complementary in the regulation of salivary gland secretion; they are
cooperative in the regulation of the reproductive and urinary systems.
- In organs without dual
innervation (such as most blood vessels), regulation is achieved by increases
or decreases in sympathetic nerve activity.
Control of the
Autonomic Nervous System by Higher Brain Centers - Visceral sensory input
to the brain may result in the activity of the descending pathways to the
preganglionic autonomic neurons. The centers in the brain that control autonomic
activity are influenced by higher brain areas, as well as by sensory input.
- The medulla oblongata
of the brain stem is the structure that most directly controls the activity
of the ANS.
- The medulla oblongata
is in turn influenced by sensory input and by input from the hypothalamus.
- The hypothalamus
orchestrates somatic, autonomic, and endocrine responses during various
behavioral states.
- The activity of the
hypothalamus is influenced by input from the limbic system, cerebellum,
and cerebrum; these interconnections provide an autonomic component to changes
in body position, emotion, and various expressions of personality.
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