| Human Anatomy, 6/e Kent Van De Graaff,
Weber State University
Endocrine System
Chapter SummaryInternal Affairs (104.0K) Introduction to the Endocrine
System - Hormones are regulatory
molecules released into the blood by endocrine glands. The action of a hormone
on target cells is dependent on its concentration and the specific receptor
sites on cell membranes.
- Hormones are classified
chemically as steroids, proteins, and amines.
- Negative feedback occurs
when information concerning an imbalance in hormone concentration is fed back
to an organ that acts to correct the imbalance.
Pituitary Gland
- The pituitary gland (hypophysis)
is divided into an anterior adenohypophysis and a posterior neurohypophysis.
- In adults the adenohypophysis
consists of a glandular pars distalis and a thin proximal extension called
the pars tuberalis. A pars intermedia is present in the fetus but does
not constitute a separate structure in the adult.
- The neurohypophysis
consists of the lobus nervosa and the infundibulum.
- The anterior pituitary
produces and secretes growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic
hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, prolactin, and
melanocyte-stimulating hormone.
- The posterior pituitary
releases oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone.
- Secretions of the anterior
pituitary are controlled by hypothalamic hormones and regulated by the feedback
of hormones from the target cells. Release of hormones from the posterior
pituitary are controlled by the hypothalamo-hypophyseal nerve tract.
Thyroid and Parathyroid
- The bilobed thyroid gland
is located in the neck, just below the larynx. Four small parathyroid glands
are embedded in its posterior surface.
- Thyroid follicles secrete
thyroxine and triiodothyronine, which increase the rate of protein synthesis
and the rate of energy release from carbohydrates. They also regulate the
rate of growth and the rate of maturation of the nervous system.
- Parafollicular cells
of the thyroid secrete the hormone calcitonin, which lowers blood calcium
by inhibiting the release of calcium from bone tissue and stimulating the
excretion of calcium by the kidneys.
- Parathyroid hormone causes
an increase in blood calcium and a decrease in blood phosphate levels. It
acts on the large intestine, kidneys, and bones.
Pancreas - The pancreas is a mixed
endocrine and exocrine gland, located in the abdominal cavity.
- The pancreatic islets
contain beta cells that secrete insulin and alpha cells that secrete glucagon.
- Insulin lowers blood
glucose and stimulates the production of glycogen, fat, and protein.
- Glucagon raises blood
glucose by stimulating the breakdown of liver glycogen.
Adrenal Glands - Each adrenal gland consists
of an adrenal cortex and an adrenal medulla and is positioned along the superior
border of a kidney.
- Hormones of the adrenal
cortex include mineralocorticoids, which regulate sodium reabsorption and
potassium excretion; glucocorticoids, which influence metabolism by promoting
vasoconstriction and resistance to stress; and gonadocorticoids, which supplement
gonadal hormones.
- Epinephrine and norepinephrine,
secreted from the adrenal medulla, produce effects similar to those of the
sympathetic division of the ANS.
Gonads and Other Endocrine
Glands - Testes are the male gonads
that produce the male sex hormone testosterone within the interstitial cells.
- Ovaries are the female
gonads that produce estrogens within the ovarian follicles and corpus luteum.
- The pineal gland, located
in the roof of the third ventricle of the brain, secretes melatonin, which
seems to have an effect on the hypothalamus in the release of gonadotrophin.
- The thymus is positioned
behind the sternum within the mediastinum. It produces T cells that are important
in maintaining body immunity.
- Certain gastrointestinal
cells secrete hormones that aid digestion.
- The maternal placenta
secretes hormones that maintain pregnancy.
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