Internal Affairs (110.0K) Functions and Major Components
of the Circulatory System - The circulatory system
transports oxygen and nutritive molecules to the tissue cells and carbon dioxide
and other wastes away from tissue cells; it also carries hormones and other
regulatory molecules to their target organs.
- Leukocytes and their
products help to protect the body from infection, and platelets function in
blood clotting.
- The components of the
circulatory system are the heart, blood vessels, and blood, which constitute
the cardiovascular system, and the lymphatic vessels and lymphoid tissue and
organs of the lymphatic system.
Blood - Blood, a highly specialized
connective tissue, consists of formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes,
and platelets) suspended in a watery fluid called plasma.
- Erythrocytes are disc-shaped
cells that lack nuclei but contain hemoglobin. There are approximately 4 million
to 6 million erythrocytes per cubic millimeter of blood, and they are functional
for about 120 days.
- Leukocytes have nuclei
and are classified as granular (eosinophils, basophils, and neutrophils) or
agranular (monocytes and lymphocytes). Leukocytes defend the body against
infections by microorganisms.
- Platelets, or thrombocytes,
are cytoplasmic fragments that assist in the formation of clots to prevent
blood loss.
- Erythrocytes are formed
through a process called erythropoiesis; leukocytes are formed through leukopoiesis.
- Prenatal hemopoietic
centers are the yolk sac, liver, and spleen. In the adult, bone marrow and
lymphoid tissues perform this function.
Heart - The heart is enclosed
within a pericardial sac. The wall of the heart consists of the epicardium,
myocardium, and endocardium.
- The right atrium
receives blood from the superior and inferior venae cavae, and the right
ventricle pumps blood through the pulmonary trunk into the pulmonary arteries.
- The left atrium receives
blood from the pulmonary veins, and the left ventricle pumps blood into
the ascending aorta.
- The heart contains
right and left atrioventricular valves (the tricuspid and bicuspid valves,
respectively); a pulmonary semilunar valve; and an aortic (semilunar)
valve.
- The two principal circulatory
divisions are the pulmonary and the systemic; in addition, the coronary system
serves the heart.
- The pulmonary circulation
includes the vessels that carry blood from the right ventricle through
the lungs, and from there to the left atrium.
- The systemic circulation
includes all other arteries, capillaries, and veins in the body. These
vessels carry blood from the left ventricle through the body and return
blood to the right atrium.
- The myocardium of
the heart is served by right and left coronary arteries that branch from
the ascending portion of the aorta. The coronary sinus collects and empties
the blood into the right atrium.
- Contraction of the atria
and ventricles is produced by action potentials that originate in the sinoatrial
(SA) node.
- These electrical
waves spread over the atria and then enter the atrioventricular (AV) node.
- From here, the impulses
are conducted by the atrioventricular bundle and conduction myofibers
into the ventricular walls.
- During contraction of
the ventricles, the intraventricular pressure rises and causes the AV valves
to close; during relaxation, the pulmonary and aortic valves close because
the pressure is greater in the arteries than in the ventricles.
- Closing of the AV valves
causes the first sound (lub); closing of the pulmonary and aortic valves causes
the second sound (dub). Heart murmurs are commonly caused by abnormal valves
or by septal defects.
- A recording of the pattern
of electrical conduction is called an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG).
Blood Vessels - Arteries and veins have
a tunica externa, tunica media, and tunica interna.
- Arteries have thicker
muscle layers in proportion to their diameters than do veins because arteries
must withstand a higher blood pressure.
- Veins have venous
valves that direct blood to the heart when the veins are compressed by
the skeletal muscle pumps.
- Capillaries are composed
of endothelial cells only. They are the basic functional units of the circulatory
system.
Principal Arteries of
the Body - Three arteries arise
from the aortic arch: the brachiocephalic trunk, the left common carotid artery,
and the left subclavian artery. The brachiocephalic trunk divides into the
right common carotid artery and the right subclavian artery.
- The head and neck receive
an arterial supply from branches of the internal and external carotid arteries
and the vertebral arteries.
- The brain receives
blood from the paired internal carotid arteries and the paired vertebral
arteries, which form the cerebral arterial circle surrounding the pituitary
gland.
- The external carotid
artery gives off numerous branches that supply the head and neck.
- The upper extremity is
served by the subclavian artery and its derivatives.
- The subclavian artery
becomes first the axillary artery and then the brachial artery as it enters
the arm.
- The brachial artery
bifurcates to form the radial and ulnar arteries, which supply blood to
the forearm and hand.
- The abdominal portion
of the aorta has the following branches: the inferior phrenic, celiac trunk,
superior mesenteric, renal, suprarenal, testicular (or ovarian), and inferior
mesenteric arteries.
- The common iliac arteries
divide into the internal and external iliac arteries, which supply branches
to the pelvis and lower extremities.
Principal Veins of the
Body - Blood from the head and
neck is drained by the external and internal jugular veins; blood from the
brain is drained by the internal jugular veins.
- The upper extremity is
drained by both superficial and deep veins.
- In the thorax, the superior
vena cava is formed by the union of the two brachiocephalic veins and also
collects blood from the azygos system of veins.
- The lower extremity is
drained by both superficial and deep veins. At the level of the fifth lumbar
vertebra, the right and left common iliac veins unite to form the inferior
vena cava.
- Blood from capillaries
in the GI tract is drained via the hepatic portal vein to the liver.
- This venous blood
then passes through hepatic sinusoids and is drained from the liver in
the hepatic veins.
- The pattern of circulation
characterized by two capillary beds in a series is called a portal system.
Fetal Circulation - Structural adaptations
in the fetal cardiovascular system reflect the fact that oxygen and nutrients
are obtained from the placenta rather than from the fetal lungs and GI tract.
- Fully oxygenated blood
is carried only in the umbilical vein, which drains the placenta. This blood
is carried via the ductus venosus to the inferior vena cava of the fetus.
- Partially oxygenated
blood is shunted from the right to the left atrium via the foramen ovale and
from the pulmonary trunk to the aorta via the ductus arteriosus.
Lymphatic System - The lymphatic system
returns excess interstitial fluid to the venous system and helps to protect
the body from disease; it also transports fats from the small intestine to
the blood.
- Lymphatic capillaries
drain interstitial fluid, which is formed from blood plasma; when this fluid
enters lymphatic capillaries, it is called lymph.
- Lymph is returned to
the venous system via two large lymph ducts-the thoracic duct and the right
lymphatic duct.
- Lymph filters through
lymph nodes, which contain phagocytic cells and lymphatic nodules that produce
lymphocytes.
- Lymphoid organs include
the lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen, and thymus.
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