A business combination occurs when an entity acquires net assets that constitute a business or acquires equity interests of one or more other entities and obtains control over that entity or entities.
A combined enterprise is an entity that results from a business combination of constituent companies, the combinor and the combinee. The owners of the combinor end up with control of ownership interests in the combined enterprise.
In a friendly takeover business combination, terms of the combination are worked out by the boards of directors of the constituent companies. A target company in a hostile takeover typically resorts to one or more defensive tactics that have colorful designations such as white knight and shark repellent.
In recent years, business combinations have been a popular method for a corporation to diversify its product lines and to enlarge its share of the market for its products. Growth through business combinations often is referred to as external growth.
The four most common methods for carrying out a business combination are statutory merger, statutory consolidation, acquisition of common stock, and acquisition of assets.
In a statutory merger, one corporation issues its common stock for the common stock owned by stockholders of one or more other corporations, which then cease to exist as separate legal entities. The surviving corporation thus obtains the assets and assumes the liabilities of the liquidated corporations.
A statutory consolidation is similar to a statutory merger, except that a new corporation is formed to issue its common stock for the common stock owned by stockholders of two or more existing corporations, which then go out of existence.
In the other two methods for carrying out a business combination, the combinor issues its common stock, cash, debt, or a combination thereof, to acquire the common stock or the net assets of the combinee. These two methods do not involve the liquidation of the combinee.
The amount of cash or debt securities, or the number of shares of common stock, to be issued in a business combination usually is established by capitalization of the expected average earnings of the combinee at a desired rate of return and/or determination of the current fair values of the combinee's assets and liabilities.
If common stock is issued by the combinor for the outstanding shares of common stock of the combinee, the price is expressed as the ratio of the number of shares of the combinor's common stock to be exchanged for each share of the combinee's common stock. For example, if 100,000 shares of Port Corporation common stock are to be issued in a business combination for the 40,000 outstanding shares of Strode Company common stock, the exchange ratio is 2_ to 1.
Under current generally accepted accounting principles, there is one permissible method of accounting for business combinations: purchase.
The combinor in a business combination is the constituent company that distributes cash or other assets or incurs liabilities to acquire the common stock or assets of the other constituent company or companies. In a business combination involving an exchange of common stock, the combinor generally is the constituent company whose former stockholders retain or receive the larger portion of the voting rights of the combined enterprise.
In a business combination, the cost of the combinee includes the total of the consideration paid by the combinor, the direct out-of-pocket costs of the business combination, and any contingent consideration that is determinable on the date of the combination. Other contingent consideration is recognized when the contingency is resolved.
The cost of a combinee in a business combination first is allocated to the identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed, based on their current fair values on the date of the combination. Any remaining cost not allocated is recognized as goodwill. If the total of the current fair values assigned to acquired assets and assumed liabilities exceeds the cost of the combinee, the bargain-purchase excess is applied pro rata to reduce the values initially assigned to specified assets.
The balance sheet issued on the date of a business combination includes the assets and liabilities of all constituent companies involved in the combination; the retained earnings is that of the combinor only. The income statement issued by the combinor for the accounting period in which a business combination is completed includes the operating results of the combinee after the date of the combination only.
The complexity of business combinations and their effects on the financial position and operating results of the reporting entity necessitate extensive disclosure of business combinations in a note to the financial statements.
Purchase accounting for business combinations has been criticized by accountants. The principal criticism of purchase accounting centers on its recognition of goodwill (a) on a residual basis and (b) for the combinee only.
