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abstract words  Words or phrases that refer generally to ideas, qualities, acts, or relationships.
accommodation goal  The marginalized group manages to keep co-cultural identity while striving for positive relationships with the dominant culture.
active listening  Involved listening with a purpose.
active perception  Perception in which our minds select, organize, and interpret that which we sense.
adaptors  Nonverbal movements that you might perform fully in private but only partially in public.
adoption  Inducing an audience to accept a new idea, attitude, behavior, belief, or product and to demonstrate that acceptance through behavioral change.
affect displays  Nonverbal movements of the face and body used to show emotion.
agenda setting  The determination of the topics discussed by individuals and society on the basis of media attention.
aggressiveness  Assertion of one's rights at the expense of others and care about one's own needs but no one else's.
analogy  A comparison of things in some respects, especially in position or function, that are otherwise dissimilar.
androgynous  A term used in reference to persons who possess stereotypical female and male characteristics.
anticipatory socialization  Process through which individuals develop a set of expectations and beliefs concerning how people communicate in particular occupations and in formal and informal work settings.
anxiety uncertainty management  A theory that suggests that people who find themselves in unfamiliar cultures feel uncertainty, which leads to anxiety.
argumentativeness  The quality or state of being argumentative; synonymous with contentiousness or combativeness.
arguments  Propositions, justifications, and evidence used to persuade.
artifacts  Ornaments or adornments we display that hold communicative potential.
assigned groups  Groups that evolve out of a hierarchy where individuals are assigned membership to the group.
assimilation goal  The marginalized group attempts to fit in with the dominant group.
asynchronous communication  Delays occur in the communication interaction and each participant must take turns being the sender and receiver.
attitude  A predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to a person, an object, an idea, or an event.
attractiveness  A concept that includes physical attractiveness, how desirable a person is to work with, and how much "social value" the person has for others.
attribution  The assignment of meaning to people's behavior
audience analysis  The collection and interpretation of audience information obtained by observation, inferences, questionnaires, or interviews.
audience interest  The relevance and importance of the topic to an audience; sometimes related to the uniqueness of the topic.
audience knowledge  The amount of information the audience already has about the topic.
audio-video conferencing  Use of the Internet or a network to connect two or more multimedia-capable computers for live, interactive conversations using visual and auditory channels of communication.
autocratic leaders  Leaders who maintain strict control over their group.
automatic attention  The instinctive focus we give to stimuli signaling a change in our surroundings, stimuli that we deem as important, or stimuli that we perceive to signal danger.
bargaining  The process in which two or more parties attempt to reach an agreement on what each should give and receive in a relationship.
behavioral flexibility  The ability to alter behavior to adapt to new situations and to relate in new ways when necessary.
behaviorally based question  A question that focuses on an applicant's past actions and behaviors to determine how he or she will perform in the future.
belief  A conviction; often thought to be more enduring than an attitude and less enduring than a value.
believability  A criterion of good evidence-the audience must trust and accept the evidence.
bibliographic references  Complete citations that appear in the "references" or "works cited" section of your speech outline.
bibliography  A list of sources used in a presentation.
bipolar question  A question that limits answer options to two choices.
blind peer review  Anonymous review of articles submitted for publication in professional journals by other professionals in the discipline.
bodily movement  What the speaker does with his or her entire body during a speech presentation.
body  The largest part of the presentation, which contains the arguments, evidence, and main content.
brainstorming  A creative procedure for generating ideas and potential solutions to problems.
brakelight function  A forewarning to the audience that the end of the presentation is near.
bulletin board system (BBS)  Text-based asynchronous communication tool that allows users to disseminate information to a large number of people.
bureaucracy  An organizational structure characterized by a division of labor, rigid hierarchy of authority, and downward communication that enforces formalized rules and procedures for behavior.
captive audience  An audience that has not chosen to hear a particular speaker or speech.
cause/effect pattern  A method of organization in which the presenter first explains the causes of an event, a problem, or an issue and then discusses its consequences, results, or effects.
celebrity testimony  Statements made by a public figure who is known to the audience.
central tendency  The perceptual error of viewing everyone as average or neutral.
chain of command  Clear lines of authority.
channel  The means by which a message moves from the source to the receiver of the message.
chronemics  Also called temporal communication; the way people organize and use time.
chronological résumé  A document that organizes credentials over time.
cliché  An expression that has lost originality and force through overuse.
closed question  A question worded to restrict the response, often asking for specific information or supplying answer options from which the respondent chooses.
closing  The stage of an interview indicating its termination.
closure  The tendency to fill in missing information in order to complete an otherwise incomplete figure or statement.
co-culture  (1) A group whose beliefs or behaviors distinguish it from the larger culture of which it is a part and with which it shares numerous similarities. (2) A group that exists within a larger dominant culture but differs from the dominant culture in some significant characteristic.
code  A systematic arrangement of symbols used to create meanings in the mind of another person or persons.
cognitive modification approach  An anxiety-reducing technique designed to bolster the novice speaker's confidence by positive thinking.
cognitive paradigms  Ways of looking at the world based on individuals' attitudes, beliefs, values, and perceptions.
cohesiveness  The attachment members feel toward each other and the group.
collaborative style  Thoughtful negotiation and reasoned compromise.
collectivist cultures  Cultures that value the group over the individual.
colloquialisms  Words and phrases that are used informally.
common ground  Also known as co-orientation, it is the degree to which the speaker's values, beliefs, attitudes, and interests are shared with the audience; an aspect of credibility.
communication  The process of using messages to generate meaning.
communication apprehension (CA)  An individual's fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons.
communication competence  The ability to effectively exchange meaning through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior.
communication networks  Patterns of relationships through which information flows in an organization.
competence  The degree to which the speaker is perceived as skilled, reliable, experienced, qualified, authoritative, and informed; an aspect of credibility.
complementarity  The idea that we sometimes bond with people whose strengths are our weaknesses.
complementary relationships  Relationships in which each person supplies something the other person or persons lack.
complementation  Nonverbal and verbal codes add meaning to each other and expand the meaning of either message alone.
compliance-gaining  Those attempts made by a source of messages to influence a target to perform some desired behavior that the target otherwise might not perform.
compliance-resisting  Refusal of targets of influence messages to comply to requests.
computer catalog  An electronic database containing information about materials in a library.
computer-mediated communication (CMC)  Human-to-human communication using networked computer environments to facilitate interaction.
conclusion  The last part of the presentation; a summary of the major ideas that is designed to induce mental or behavioral change in an audience.
concrete language  Words and statements that are specific rather than abstract or vague.
concrete words  Words that refer to definite persons, places, objects, and acts.
confirmation  Feedback in which others treat us in a manner consistent with who we believe we are.
conjunctive task  A task for which no one group member has all the necessary information, but each member has some information to contribute.
connotative meaning  An individualized or personalized meaning of a word, which may be emotionally laden.
context  A set of circumstances or a situation.
continuance  Persuading an audience to continue present behavior or beliefs.
contradiction  (1) Verbal and nonverbal messages conflict. (2) In dialectic theory, each person in a relationship has two different ideas for maintaining the relationship.
contrast effects  Comparison of people or their behavior with the characteristics or behavior of other people.
control  The ability to influence our environment.
counterarguments  Rebuttals to an argument.
cover letter  A short letter introducing you and your résumé to an interviewer.
criteria  The standards by which a group must judge potential solutions.
critical listening  Listening that challenges the speaker's message by evaluating its accuracy, meaningfulness, and utility.
critical thinking  Analyzing the speaker, the situation, and the speaker's ideas to make critical judgments about the message being presented.
cultivation effect  Heavy television and media use leads people to perceive reality as consistent with the portrayals they see on television.
cultural competence  The ability of individuals and systems to respond respectfully and effectively to people of all cultures, classes, races, ethnic backgrounds, and religions in a manner that recognizes, affirms, and values the worth of individuals, families, and communities and protects and preserves the dignity of each.
cultural relativism  The belief that another culture should be judged by its context rather than measured against your own culture.
culture  A system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that the members of a society use to cope with one another and with their world.
customer service encounter  The moment of interaction between the customer and the firm.
dating  Specifying when you made an observation, since everything changes over time.
deceptive communication  The practice of deliberately making somebody believe things that are not true.
decode  The process of assigning meaning to others' words in order to translate them into thoughts of your own.
decoding  The process of assigning meaning to the idea or thought in a code.
deductive arguments  Arguments using general propositions to make conclusions about a specific instance.
definitions  Determinations of meaning through description, simplification, examples, analysis, comparison, explanation, or illustration.
delivery  The presentation of a speech by using your voice and body to reinforce your message.
democratic leaders  Leaders who encourage members to participate in group decisions.
demographic analysis  The collection and interpretation of data about the characteristics of people, excluding their attitudes, values, and beliefs.
demonstrating  Showing the audience what you are explaining.
denotative meaning  The agreed-upon meaning or dictionary meaning of a word.
dependence power  Control over a relationship held by a person who is committed to the relationship but perceives the partner to be less committed and who has a number of viable relationship alternatives.
descriptiveness  The practice of describing observed behavior or phenomena instead of offering personal reactions or judgments.
designated leader  Someone who has been appointed or elected to a leadership position.
deterrence  Persuading an audience to avoid an activity or a belief.
dialectic  Tension that exists between two conflicting or interacting forces, elements, or ideas.
dialogue  The act of taking part in a conversation, discussion, or negotiation.
digital divide  A growing gap between those who have access to technology and those who do not.
disconfirmation  Feedback in which others fail to respond to our notion of self by responding neutrally.
discontinuance  Inducing an audience to stop doing something or thinking in a certain way.
disjunctive tasks  Tasks which require little coordination and which can be completed by the most skilled group member working alone.
division of labor  How a given amount of work is divided among the available human resources.
downward communication  Superiors initiate messages to subordinates.
dyadic communication  Two-person communication.
dynamism  The extent to which the speaker is perceived as bold, active, energetic, strong, empathic, and assertive; an aspect of credibility.
economic orientation  Organizations that manufacture products and/or other services for consumers.
electronic mail  Use of the Internet or a computer network to send addressable messages to another person connected to the Internet or network.
emblems  Nonverbal movements that substitute for words and phrases.
emergent groups  Groups resulting from environmental conditions leading to the formation of a cohesive group of individuals.
emergent leader  Someone who becomes an informal leader by exerting influence toward achievement of a group's goal but who does not hold the formal position or role of leader.
emoticons  Typographic symbols showing emotional meaning.
emotional appeals  Attempts to persuade audience members to change an attitude or a behavior through an appeal-usually in a narrative form-to their emotions.
emotional labor  Jobs in which employees are expected to display certain feelings in order to satisfy organizational role expectations.
emotional proof  Also called pathos; proof based on feelings and emotions.
empathic listening  Listening with a purpose and attempting to understand the other person.
emphasis  Nonverbal cues strengthen verbal messages.
encoding  The process of translating your thoughts into words.
ethics  (1) A set of moral principles or values. (2) A set of principles of right conduct.
ethnocentrism  The belief that your own group or culture is superior to other groups or cultures.
euphemism  A polite, more pleasant expression used instead of a socially unacceptable form.
evidence  Any material that supports a proposition.
examples  Specific instances used to illustrate your point.
expert testimony  Statements made by someone who has special knowledge or expertise about an issue or idea.
explanation  A means of idea development that simplifies or clarifies an idea while arousing audience interest.
explicit-rule culture  A culture in which information and cultural rules are explicit, procedures are explained, and expectations are discussed.
extemporaneous mode  A carefully prepared and researched speech delivered in a conversational style.
extrinsic motivation  A method of making information relevant by providing the audience with reasons outside the speech itself for listening to the content of the speech.
eye contact  The extent to which a speaker looks directly at the audience.
face  The socially approved and presented identity of an individual.
facework  Verbal and nonverbal strategies that are used to present one's own varying images to others and to help them maintain their own images.
facial expression  Any nonverbal cue expressed by the speaker's face.
feedback  The listener's verbal and nonverbal responses to the speaker and the speaker's message.
feminist orientation  Embracing collective decision-making, empowerment, and a political agenda to end oppression.
figure  The focal point of a person's attention.
first-person observation  Observations based on something that you personally have sensed.
fluency  The smoothness of delivery, the flow of words, and the absence of vocalized pauses.
formal communication  Messages that follow prescribed channels of communication throughout the organization.
formal role  Also called positional role; an assigned role based on an individual's position or title within a group.
frozen evaluation  An assessment of a concept that does not change over time.
functional résumé  A document that organizes credentials by type of function performed.
fundamental attribution error  In judging other people, the tendency to attribute their successes to the situation and their failures to their personal characteristics.
gatekeeping  The process of determining what news, information, or entertainment will reach a mass audience.
gestures  Movements of the head, arms, and hands to illustrate, emphasize, or signal ideas in the speech.
ground  The background against which a person's focused attention occurs.
group climate  The emotional tone or atmosphere members create within the group.
group conflict  An expressed struggle between two or more interdependent members of a group who perceive there to be incompatible goals or behaviors.
group culture  The socially negotiated system of rules that guide group behavior.
group decision support system (GDSS)  Interactive network of computers with specialized software allowing users to generate solutions for unstructured problems.
groupthink  An unintended outcome of cohesiveness where the desire for agreement takes precedence over critical analysis and discussion.
halo effect  A positive generalization of all attributes based on one attribute, which can be negative or positive.
hearing  The act of receiving sound.
heterosexist language  Language that implies that everyone is heterosexual.
high-context (HC) cultures  Cultures like these of the Asian Pacific Rim and Central and South America where much of the meaning is "preprogrammed information" understood by the receiver and transmitted also by the context in which the transaction occurs.
high self-monitors  Individuals who are highly aware of their impression management behavior.
horizontal communication  Messages between members of an organization with equal power.
hostile work environment sexual harassment  Conditions in the workplace that are sexually offensive, intimidating, or hostile and that affect an individual's ability to perform his or her job.
hurtful messages  Messages that create emotional pain or upset.
hypothetical question  A question that requires the interviewee to describe how he or she would behave in specific situations.
illustrators  Nonverbal movements that accompany or reinforce verbal messages.
imagery  Use of words that appeal to the senses, that create pictures in the mind.
immediacy  Communication behaviors intended to create perceptions of psychological closeness with others.
immediate behavioral purposes  Actions a speaker seeks from an audience during and immediately after a speech.
immediate purpose  What you expect to achieve on the day of your presentation.
implicit-rule culture  A culture in which information and cultural rules are implied and already known to the participants.
impression management  The control (or lack of control) of the communication of information through behavior.
impromptu mode  Delivery of a speech without notes, plans, or preparation; characterized by spontaneity and informal language.
inclusion  The state of being involved with others; a human need.
incremental plagiarism  The intentional or unintentional use of information from one or more sources without fully divulging how much information is directly quoted.
indexing  Identifying the uniqueness of objects, events, and people.
individualistic cultures  Cultures that value individual freedom, choice, uniqueness, and independence.
inductive arguments  Arguments using specific pieces of evidence to draw a generalization.
inflection  The variety or changes in pitch.
informal communication  Any interaction that does not generally follow the formal structure of the organization but emerges out of natural social interaction among organization members.
informal role  Also called a behavioral role; a role that is developed spontaneously within a group.
information hunger  The audience's need for the information contained in the speech.
information literacy  The ability to recognize when information is needed and to locate, evaluate, and effectively use the information needed.
information overload  A situation that occurs when the quantity or difficulty of the information presented is greater than the audience can assimilate within the given time.
information relevance  The importance, novelty, and usefulness of the topic and the information.
informative content  The main points and subpoints, illustrations, and examples used to clarify and inform.
instant messaging (IM)  A text-based form of synchronous communication which allows users to connect two computers over the Internet and have a "conversation" through their computers.
integration orientation  Organizations that help to mediate and resolve discord among members of society.
intention  How the speaker wants the audience to respond.
intentionality  The purposefulness of nonverbal codes.
interaction management  Establishing a smooth pattern of interaction that allows a clear flow between topics and ideas.
intercultural communication  The exchange of information between individuals who are unlike culturally.
internal reference  Brief notation indicating a bibliographic reference that contains the details you are using in your speech.
Internet  A global network of interconnected computer networks.
Internet relay chat (IRC)  A text-based synchronous communication system that allows multiple users to interact in real time via the Internet.
interpersonal communication  The process of using messages to generate meaning between at least two people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening.
interpersonal dominance  A relational, behavioral, and interactional state that reflects the actual achievement of influence or control over another via communicative actions.
interpretive perception  Perception that involves a blend of internal states and external stimuli.
interview  A dyadic communication context with a purpose or goal.
interview guide  An outline of topics and subtopics to be covered.
interview schedule  A list of major questions and follow-up questions; the schedule is a useful tool in keeping the interview focused on the topic or issue of concern.
intrapersonal communication  The process of using messages to generate meaning within the self.
introduction  The first part of the presentation; its function is to arouse the audience and to lead into the main ideas presented in the body.
involvement  The importance of the topic to the speaker; determined by the strength of the feelings the speaker has about the topic and the time and energy the speaker devotes to that topic.
jargon  The technical language developed by a professional group.
jealousy  Possessive watchfulness of the partner or suspicion about potential rivals for the partner's affections.
job description  A document that defines the job in terms of its content and scope.
justification  The evidence used to support propositions.
key-word outline  An outline consisting of important words or phrases to remind the speaker of the content of the presentation.
kinesics  The study of bodily movements, including posture, gestures, and facial expressions.
laissez-faire leaders  Leaders who take almost no initiative for structuring a group discussion.
language  A code consisting of symbols, letters, or words with arbitrary meanings that are governed by rules and used to communicate.
lay testimony  Statements made by an ordinary person that substantiate or support what you say.
leadership  A process of using communication to influence the behaviors and attitudes of others to meet group goals.
leading question  A question worded to elicit a particular response from an interviewee.
lecture cues  Verbal or nonverbal signals that stress points or indicate transitions between ideas during a lecture.
lecture listening  The ability to listen to, mentally process, and recall lecture information.
leniency  The consistent evaluation of people (or objects) in an overly positive manner.
linear communication  Communication that flows primarily from the sender to the receiver with little or no feedback from the receiver to the sender.
listening  The active process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and/or nonverbal messages. It involves the ability to retain information, as well as to react empathically and/or appreciatively to spoken and/or nonverbal messages.
listening for enjoyment  Situations involving relaxing, fun, or emotionally stimulating information.
listserv  E-mail-based discussion groups.
logical appeals  Propositions and evidence used to persuade an audience.
logical proof  Also called logos, proof based on reasoning.
long-range goal  What you expect to achieve over a time period longer than the day of your presentation.
long-term memory  Our permanent storage place for information including but not limited to past experiences, language, values, knowledge, images of people, memories of sights, sounds, and smells, and even fantasies.
low self-monitors  Individuals who communicate with others with little attention to the responses to their messages.
low-context (LC) cultures  Cultures like United States and Scandinavia where communication tends to be centered on the source with intentions stated overtly and with a direct verbal style.
main points  The most important points in a presentation; indicated by Roman numerals in an outline.
maintenance functions  Behaviors that focus on the interpersonal relationships among members.
manuscript mode  Delivery of a speech from a script of the entire speech.
mass communication  (1) The process of using messages to generate meanings in a mediated system between a source and a large number of unseen receivers. (2) A process in which professional communicators use technology to share messages over great distances to influence large audiences.
meaning  The understanding of the message.
mediated communication  Any form of communication that takes place using electronic means.
memorized mode  Delivering a speech that has been committed to memory.
message  The verbal or nonverbal form of the idea, thought, or feeling that one person (the source) wishes to communicate to another person or group of people (the receivers).
messages  Verbal and nonverbal symbols, signs, and behaviors.
metaphor  A means to understanding and experiencing one thing in terms of another.
Monroe motivated sequence  A problem-solving format that encourages an audience to become concerned about an issue; especially appropriate for a persuasive speech.
M-time  The monochronic time schedule, which compartmentalizes time to meet personal needs, separates task and social dimensions, and points to the future.
multiuser environments  Web-based virtual worlds where participants can interact and engage in fantasy role-playing.
narrating  The oral presentation and interpretation of a story, a description, or an event; includes dramatic reading of prose or poetry.
network  An intricate web of contacts and relationships designed to benefit the participants.
neutral question  A question that requires an answer consistent with candidates' positions on an issue, with their beliefs, with their attitudes and values, or with the facts as they know them.
noise  Any interference in the encoding and decoding processes that reduces message clarity.
nonverbal codes  All symbols that are not words, including bodily movements, use of space and time, clothing and adornments, and sounds other than words.
nonverbal communication  The process of using messages that are not words to generate meaning.
norms  Informal rules for group interaction created and sustained through communication.
objectics  Also called object language, the study of the human use of clothing and other artifacts as nonverbal codes.
objective statement  An articulation of your goals.
open question  A question worded to permit freedom in the length and nature of the response.
operational definition  Definition that identifies something by revealing how it works, how it is made, or what it consists of.
organization  Social collectives, or groups of people, in which activities are coordinated to achieve both individual and collective goals.
organizational assimilation  Processes through which individuals become integrated into the culture of an organization.
organizational communication  Ways in which groups of people both maintain structure and order through their symbolic interactions and allow individual actors the freedom to accomplish their goals.
organizational culture  A pattern of beliefs, values, and practices shared by the members of an organization.
organizational patterns  Arrangements of the contents of a presentation.
organizational structure  Patterns of relations and practices created through the coordinated activities of organizational members.
organizations  Social collectives, or groups of people, in which activities are coordinated to achieve both individual and collective goals.
outline  A written plan that uses symbols, margins, and content to reveal the order, importance, and substance of a presentation.
paralinguistic features  The nonword sounds and nonword characteristics of language, such as pitch, volume, rate, and quality.
parallel form  The consistent use of complete sentences, clauses, phrases, or words in an outline.
paraphrasing  Restating another person's message by rephrasing the content or intent of the message.
participatory organizations  Organizations that value individuals' goals, needs, and feelings while simultaneously pursuing efficiency and productivity.
pattern-maintenance orientation  Organizations that promote cultural and educational regularity and development within society.
pause  The absence of vocal sound used for dramatic effect, transition, or emphasis of ideas.
perception  The process of becoming aware of objects and events from the senses.
perceptual constancy  The idea that our past experiences lead us to see the world in a way that is difficult to change; that is, our initial perceptions persist.
perceptual defense  A defense mechanism in which you ignore or minimize damaging or harmful information.
personal experience  Use of your own life as a source of information.
personal idioms  Unique forms of expression and language understood only by individual couples.
personal inventory  A speaker's survey of his or her reading and viewing habits and behavior to discover topics of personal interest.
personal proof  Also called ethos, proof based on personal expertise or authority.
persuasion  An ongoing process in which verbal and nonverbal messages shape, reinforce, and change people's responses.
phatic communication  Communication that is used to establish a mood of sociability rather than to communicate information or ideas.
physical communities  The actual communities we live in-our neighborhoods and cities.
pitch  The highness or lowness of a speaker's voice; technically, the frequency of sound made by vocal cords.
plagiarism  The intentional use of information from another source without crediting the source.
politeness  Our efforts to save face for others.
political orientation  Organizations that generate and distribute power and control within society.
power  Interpersonal influence that forms the basis for group leadership.
pragmatics  The study of language as it is used in a social context, including its effect on the communicators.
primary question  A question that introduces areas of inquiry and is coherent in itself.
problem/solution pattern  A method of organization in which the presenter describes a problem and proposes a solution to that problem.
process  An activity, exchange, or set of behaviors that occurs over time, e.g., in relationships.
profanity  Language that is disrespectful of things sacred, commonly known as "swearing."
projection  Our belief that others are fundamentally like us.
propositions  Statements the speaker is trying to prove.
proxemics  The study of the human use of space and distance.
proximity  (1) The principle that objects which are physically close to each other will be perceived as a unit or group. (2) Term referring to location, distance, range between persons and things.
P-time  The polychronic time schedule, where a culture views time as "contextually based and relationally oriented."
public communication  The process of generating meanings in a situation where a single source transmits a message to a number of receivers who give nonverbal and, sometimes, question-and-answer feedback.
questionnaire  A set of written questions developed to obtain demographic and attitudinal information.
quid pro quo sexual harassment  A situation in which an employee is offered a reward or is threatened with punishment based on his or her participation in a sexual activity.
racist language  Language that insults a group because of its color or ethnicity.
rate  The speed at which speech is delivered, normally between 125 and 190 words per minute.
receiver  A message target.
recency  Assessment of a person at the current time on the basis of recollection of recent information.
reference librarian  A librarian specifically trained to help find sources of information.
regionalisms  Words and phrases that are specific to a particular region or part of the country.
regulation  Nonverbal cues are used to monitor and control interactions with others.
regulators  Nonverbal movements that control the flow or pace of communication.
rejection  Feedback in which others treat us in a manner that is inconsistent with our self-definition.
relational deterioration  In Knapp's model, the process by which relationships disintegrate.
relational development  In Knapp's model, the process by which relationships grow.
relational maintenance  In Knapp's model, the process of keeping a relationship together.
relational uncertainty  A state of suspicion or doubt.
relationship-oriented groups  Also called primary groups; groups that are usually long-term and exist to meet our needs for inclusion and affection (love, esteem).
relaxation approach  Combining deep relaxation with fear-inducing thoughts.
repetition  The same message is sent both verbally and nonverbally.
responsiveness  The idea that we tend to select our friends from people who demonstrate positive interest in us.
rhetorical questions  Questions asked for effect, with no answer expected.
rituals  Formalized patterns of actions or words followed regularly.
role  The part an individual plays in a group; an individual's function or expected behavior.
rough draft  The preliminary organization of the outline of a presentation.
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis  A theory that our perception of reality is determined by our thought processes and our thought processes are limited by our language and, therefore, that language shapes our reality.
schema  Organizational "filing systems" for thoughts held in long-term memory.
search engine  A program on the Internet that allows users to search for information.
secondary question  A question that pursues the trail of information discovered in the response to a previous question.
second-person observation  A report of what another person observed.
selective attention  The tendency, when we expose ourselves to information and ideas, to focus on certain cues and ignore others.
selective exposure  The tendency to expose ourselves to information that reinforces rather than contradicts our beliefs or opinions.
selective perception  The tendency to see, hear, and believe only what we want to see, hear, and believe.
selective retention  The tendency to remember better the things that reinforce our beliefs than those that oppose them.
self-actualization  According to Maslow, the fulfillment of one's potential as a person.
self-awareness  An understanding of and insight into one's self, including one's attitudes, values, beliefs, strengths, and weaknesses.
self-centered functions  Behaviors that serve the needs of the individual at the expense of the group.
self-concept  An individual's evaluation of himself or herself, that is, an individual's self-appraisal.
self-disclosure  The process of making intentional revelations about one's self that others would be unlikely to know and that generally constitute private, sensitive, or confidential information.
self-esteem  The feeling an individual has about his or her self-concept, that is, how well the individual likes and values himself or herself.
self-fulfilling prophecy  The idea that we behave and see ourselves in ways that are consistent with how others see us.
self-image  The picture an individual has of himself or herself; the sort of person an individual believes he or she is.
self-managed approach  Reducing communication apprehension by self-diagnosis and application of appropriate therapies.
self-serving bias  In assessing ourselves, the tendency to attribute our own successes to our personal qualities and our failures to the circumstances.
semantics  The branch of language study that is concerned with meaning.
sentence outline  An outline consisting entirely of complete sentences.
separation goal  The marginalized group relates as exclusively as possible with its own group and as little as possible with the dominant group.
sexist language  Language that excludes individuals on the basis of gender.
sexual harassment  Unwelcome, unsolicited, repeated behavior of a sexual nature.
short-term memory  A part of memory that acts as a temporary storage place for information.
signposts  Ways in which a presenter signals to an audience where the presentation is going.
similarity  (1) The principle that elements are grouped together because they share attributes such as size, color, or belief. (2) The idea that our friends are usually people who like or dislike the same things we do.
skills approach  Reducing communication apprehension by improving skills such as by taking a public speaking course.
slang  A specialized language of a group of people who share a common interest or belong to a similar co-culture.
sleeper effect  A change of audience opinion caused by the separation of the message content from its source over a period of time.
small-group communication  (1) The process of using messages to generate meaning in a small group of people. (2) The interaction among 3 to 9 people who are working together to achieve an interdependent goal.
social attractiveness  A concept that includes physical attractiveness, how desirable a person is to work with, and how much "social value" the person has for others.
social exchange theory  Economic model which suggets that we develop relationships on the basis of their rewards and costs.
social penetration theory  A theory that explains how relationships develop and deteriorate through the exchange of intimate information.
source  (1) A message initiator. (2) Someone who shares information, ideas, or attitudes with someone else.
source credibility  The extent to which the speaker is perceived as competent to make the claims he or she is making.
spatial/relations organization  A method of organization in which the presenter reveals how things relate to each other in space, position, and visual orientation.
stakeholders  Groups of people who have an interest in the actions of an organization.
statistics  Numbers that summarize numerical information or compare quantities.
strategic ambiguity  Purposeful use of symbols to allow multiple interpretations of messages.
strategic choices  What you choose to do in your speech, from the words to the arguments.
structuration  The process of formating and maintaining structures through verbal and nonverbal communication, which establishes norms and rules governing members' behaviors.
subjective perception  Your uniquely constructed meaning attributed to sensed stimuli.
subpoints  The points in a presentation that support the main points; indicated by capital letters in an outline.
substitution  Nonverbal codes are used instead of verbal codes.
supporting materials  Information you can use to substantiate your arguments and to clarify your position.
supportive communication  Listening with empathy, acknowledging others' feelings, and engaging in dialogue to help others maintain a sense of personal control.
supportiveness  An atmosphere of openness created when members care about each other and treat each other with respect.
surveys  Studies in which a limited number of questions are answered by a sample of the population to discover opinions on issues.
syllogism  Deductive arguments that have a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.
symbolic interactionism  The process in which the self develops through the messages and feedback received from others.
symmetrical relationships  Relationships between people who mirror each other or who are highly similar.
synchronous communication  Members of the communication interaction interact in real time, and each participant is simultaneously a sender and receiver.
syntax  A set of rules about language that determines how words are arranged to form phrases and sentences.
tactile communication  The use of touch in communication.
task functions  Behaviors that are directly relevant to the group's task and that affect the group's productivity.
task-oriented groups  Also called secondary groups, groups formed for the purpose of completing tasks, such as solving problems or making decisions.
testimonial evidence  Written or oral statements of others' experience used by a speaker to substantiate or clarify a point.
tests of evidence  Questions that can be used to test the validity of evidence.
time-sequence pattern  A method of organization in which the presenter explains a sequence of events in chronological order.
topical-sequence pattern  A method of organization that emphasizes the major reasons an audience should accept a point of view by addressing the advantages, disadvantages, qualities, and types of persons, places, or things.
transition  A bridge between sections of a presentation that helps the presenter move smoothly from one idea to another.
trust  A group climate characteristic where members believe they can rely on each other.
trustworthiness  The degree to which the speaker is perceived as honest, fair, sincere, honorable, friendly, and kind; an aspect of credibility.
two-sided argument  A source advocating one position presents an argument from the opposite viewpoint and then goes on to refute that argument.
uncertainty-accepting cultures  Cultures that tolerate ambiguity, uncertainty, and diversity.
uncertainty reduction theory  A theory that upon first meeting, strangers seek to reduce the uncertainty that they have about the other person.
uncertainty-rejecting cultures  Cultures that have difficulty with ambiguity, uncertainty, and diversity.
upward communication  Messages flowing from subordinates to superiors.
value  A deeply rooted belief that governs our attitude about something.
veracity effect  The assumption that messages are truthful.
verbal citations  Oral explanations of who the source is, how recent the information is, and the source's qualifications.
verbal codes  Symbols and their grammatical arrangement, such as languages.
virtual communities  Collections of people who populate discussion boards and/or multiuser environments on the Internet.
virtual libraries  Websites which provide links to sites that have been reviewed for relevance and usability.
visual aids  Any items that can be seen by an audience for the purpose of reinforcing a message.
visualization approach  A process of picturing one's self succeeding to reduce communication apprehension.
vocal cues  All the oral aspects of sound except words themselves; part of paralinguistic features.
vocal variety  Vocal quality, intonation patterns, inflections of pitch, and syllabic duration; a lack of repetitious patterns in vocal delivery.
vocalized pauses  Breaks in fluency; filling in silences with meaningless words or sounds that negatively affect an audience's perception of the speaker's competence and dynamism.
voluntary audience  A collection of people who choose to listen to a particular speaker or speech.
within-group diversity  The presence of observable and/or implicit differences among group members.
working memory  The part of our consciousness that interprets and assigns meaning to stimuli we pay attention to.





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