Glossary (See related pages) abnormal behavior   Actions, thoughts, and feelings that are harmful to the person or to others. absolute threshold   The smallest magnitude of a stimulus that can be detected half the time. acetylcholine   A neurotransmitter used by somatic neurons that contract the body's large muscles. Acetylcholine also plays a role in memory and is thought to help regulate dreaming. achievement motivation   The psychological need in humans for success. acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)   A viral disease spread by blood and other body fluids that eventually destroys the body's immune system action potential   A brief electrical signal that travels the length of the axon. adolescence   The period from the onset of puberty until the beginning of adulthood. adolescent egocentrism   The quality of thinking that leads some adolescents to believe that they are the focus of attention in social situations, to believe that their problems are unique, to be unusually hypocritical, and to be "pseudostupid." adolescent growth spurt   The rapid increase in weight and height that occurs around the onset of puberty. adrenal glands   Two glands on the kidneys that are involved in physical and emotional arousal. afferent neurons   Neurons that transmit messages from sense organs to the central nervous system. agoraphobia   An intense fear of leaving one's home or other familiar places. algorithms   Systematic patterns of reasoning that guarantee finding a correct solution to a problem. all-or-none principle   The law that states that once a neural action potential is produced, its magnitude pis always the same. amphetamine psychosis   A prolonged reaction to the excessive use of stimulants, characterized by disordered thinking, confused and rapidly changing emotions, and intense suspiciousness. amphetamines   Powerful stimulants that produce a conscious sense of increased energy and euphoria. amygdala   A part of the limbic system that plays a role in emotion. anal expulsive   A personality type based on anal fixation in which the person is cruel, pushy, messy, and disorderly. anal retentive   A personality type based on anal fixation, in which the person is stingy, obstinate, stubborn, and compulsive. anal stage   According to Freud, the second psychosexual stage, in which gratification is focused on the anus. androgynous   Having both typical feminine and masculine characteristics. angiotensin   A substance in the blood that signals the hypothalamus that the body needs water. animism   The egocentric belief of preoperational children that inanimate objects are alive, as children are. anterograde amnesia   Disorder of memory characterized by an inability to store and/or retrieve new information in long-term memory. antidiuretic hormone (ADH)   A hormone produced by the pituitary that causes the kidneys to conserve water in the body by reabsorbing it from the urine. antisocial personality disorder   A personality disorder characterized by smooth social skills and a lack of guilt about violating social rules and laws and taking advantage of others. anxiety disorders   Psychological disorders that involve excessive levels of negative emotions, such as nervousness, tension, worry, fright, and anxiety. applied psychologists   Psychologists who use knowledge of psychology to solve and prevent human problems. approach-approach conflict   Conflict in which the individual must choose between two positive goals of approximately equal value. approach-avoidance conflict   Conflict in which achieving a positive goal will produce a negative outcome as well. assessment centers   Programs for the evaluation of employees that use simulated management tasks as their primary method of evaluation. association areas   Areas within each lobe of the cerebral cortex believed to play general rather than specific roles. astral projection   Depersonalization that includes the illusion that the mind has left the body. attachments   The psychological bonds between infants and caregivers. attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)   ADHD is defined by serious problems sustaining attention and completing tasks, or by high levels of motor activity and impulsivity, or both. The diagnosis is made only if these symptoms result in serious impairment in functioning in two or more areas of life (e.g., home and school). attitudes   Beliefs that predispose one to act and feel in certain ways. attribution   The process of trying to explain why things happen—that is, attribute them to some cause. attribution theory   The theory that people tend to look for explanations for their own behavior and that of others. atypical sexual behavior   Sexual practice that differs considerably from the norm. audition   The sense of hearing. autonomic nervous system   The division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the actions of internal body organs, such as heartbeat. avoidance-avoidance conflict   Conflict in which the individual must choose between two negative outcomes of approximately equal value. avoidance conditioning   Operant conditioning in which the behavior is reinforced because it prevents something negative from happening (a form of negative reinforcement). axons   Neuron branches that transmit messages to other neurons. basilar membrane   One of the membranes that separate the two tubes of the cochlea and on which the organ of Corti rests. basket cells   Sensory receptor cells at the base of hairs that detect pressure. behavior   Directly observable and measurable actions. behaviorism   The school of psychology that emphasizes the process of learning and the measurement of overt behavior. binocular cues   Two visual cues that require both eyes to allow us to perceive depth. biopsychosocial model of health   The theory that physical health is influenced not only by biological factors, but also by psychological and social factors. bipolar disorder   A condition in which the individual experiences periods of mania that alternate irregularly with periods of severe depression. blind experiment   A formal experiment in which the researcher who measures the dependent variable does not know which participants are in the experimental group or the control group. In double-blind experiments, the participants also do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group. blind spot   The spot where the optic nerve attaches to the retina; it contains no rods or cones. brain   The complex mass of neural cells and related cells encased in the skull. Broca's area   An area of the frontal lobe of the left cerebral hemisphere that plays a role in speaking language. Cannon-Bard theory of emotion   The theory that conscious emotional experiences and physiological reactions and behavior are relatively independent events. castration anxiety   According to Freud, the fear of a young boy that his father will punish his sexual desire for his mother by removing his genitals. catatonic schizophrenia   A subtype of schizophrenia in which the individual spends long periods in an inactive, statuelike state. catharsis   The process of releasing instinctual energy. catharsis   The release of emotional energy related to unconscious conflicts. cell body   The central part of the neuron that includes the nucleus. cell membrane   The covering of a neuron or another cell. central nervous system   The brain and the spinal cord. cerebellum   Two rounded structures behind the pons involved in the coordination of muscle movements, learning, and memory. cerebral cortex   The largest structure in the forebrain, controlling conscious experience and intelligence and being involved with the somatic nervous system. cerebral hemispheres   The two main parts of the cerebral cortex, divided into left and right hemispheres. cervix   The neck of the uterus that is connected to the vagina. child molestation   Sexual behavior with a child without force or direct threat of force. chromosomes   Strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) in cells. chunks   Units of memory. ciliary muscle   The muscle in the eye that controls the shape of the lens. cingulate cortex   A part of the limbic system lying in the cerebral cortex that processes cognitive information in emotion. cingulotomy   A type of psychosurgery for severe and otherwise untreatable obsessive-compulsive disorder; it involves surgical destruction of part of the cingulate cortex. circadian rhythm   Internally generated cycles lasting about 24 hours a day that regulate sleepiness and wakefulness, body temperature, and the secretion of some hormones. classical conditioning (CS)   A form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS): to elicit a conditioned response (CR): that is identical to or very similar to the unconditioned response (UCR). client-centered psychotherapy   Carl Rogers' approach to humanistic psychotherapy, in which the therapist creates an atmosphere that encourages clients to discover feelings of which they were unaware. climacteric   The period between about ages 45 and 60 in which there is a loss of capacity to sexually reproduce in women and a decline in the reproductive capacity of men. clinical method   The method of studying people while they are receiving psychological help from a mental health professional. clitoris   The structure at the upper part of the vagina that is most sensitive to sexual stimulation in females. closure principle   The Gestalt principle of perception that states that incomplete figures of familiar objects will tend to be perceived as wholes. cochlea   A spiral structure of the inner ear that is filled with fluid and contains the receptors for hearing. cognition   Mental processes of perceiving, believing, thinking, remembering, knowing, deciding, and so on. cognition   The intellectual processes through which information is obtained, transformed, stored, retrieved, and otherwise used. cognitive dissonance   The discomfort that results from inconsistencies between attitudes and behavior. cognitive map   An inferred mental awareness of the structure of a physical space or related elements. cognitive psychology   The viewpoint in psychology that emphasizes the importance of cognitive processes, such as perception, memory, and thinking. cognitive restructuring   A CBT method in which faulty cognitions—maladaptive beliefs, expectations, and ways of thinking—are changed by pointing out their irrationality. cognitive theory of emotion   The theory that the cognitive interpretation of events in the outside world and stimuli from our own bodies is the key factor in emotions. cognitive-behavior therapy   Psychotherapy based on social learning theory in which the therapist helps the client unlearn abnormal ways of behaving, learn more adaptive ways of behaving, and change maladaptive cognitions. collective unconscious   According to Jung, the content of the unconscious mind with which all humans are born. companionate love   The blend of friendship, intimacy, commitment, and security that generally develops after passionate love. concepts   Categories of things, events, and qualities that are linked together by a common feature or features in spite of their differences. concrete operational stage   In Piaget's theory, the period of cognitive development from ages 7 to 11. conditioned response   A response that is similar or identical to the unconditioned response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus. conditioned stimulus   A stimulus that comes to elicit responses as a result of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. conditions of worth   The standards used by others or ourselves in judging our worth. cones   The 6 million receptor cells located mostly in the center of the retina that transduce light waves into neural impulses, thereby coding information about light, dark, and color. conflict   The state in which two or more motives cannot be satisfied because they interfere with one another. conformity   Yielding to group pressure even when no direct request to comply has been made. conjunctive concepts   Concepts defined by the simultaneous presence of two or more common characteristics. conscience   According to Freud, the moral inhibitions of the superego. conscious mind   That portion of the mind of which one is presently aware. consciousness   A state of awareness. conservation   The concept understood by concrete operational children that quantity (number, mass, etc.) does not change just because shape or other superficial features have changed. consolidation   The gradual strengthening of chemical changes in synapses following learning experiences. continuity hypothesis   The view that abnormal behavior is just a more severe form of normal psychological problems. continuity principle   The Gestalt principle of perception that states that lines or patterns that follow a smooth contour will be perceived as part of a single unit. control group   The group in simple experiments that is not exposed to any level of the independent variable and is used for comparisons with the treatment group. convergent thinking   Thinking that is logical and conventional and that focuses on a problem. conversion disorders   Somatoform disorders in which individuals experience serious somatic symptoms such as functional blindness, deafness, and paralysis. cooperative play   Play that involves cooperation between two or more children. coping   Attempts by individuals to deal with the source of stress and/or control their reactions to it. cornea   The protective coating on the surface of the eye through which light passes. corpus callosum   The major neural structure connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres. correlation coefficient   The numerical expression of the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. correlational method   A research method that measures the strength of the relation between variables. cortisol   A stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands. counterconditioning   The process of eliminating a classically conditioned response by pairing the conditioned stimulus (CS): with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS): for a response that is stronger than the conditioned response (CR) and that cannot occur at the same time as the CR. creativity   The ability to make human products and ideas that are both novel and valued by others. cretinism   A type of mental retardation in children caused by a deficiency of thyroxin. criterion-referenced testing   Testing designed to determine whether a child can meet the minimum standards of a specific educational objective. critical period   A biologically determined period in the life of some animals during which certain forms of learning can take place most easily. criticism trap   An increase in the frequency of a negative behavior that often follows the use of criticism, reinforcing the behavior it is intended to punish. crystallized intelligence   The ability to use previously learned information and skills to solve familiar problems. cultural relativity   The perspective that promotes thinking of different cultures in relative terms rather than judgmental terms. culture   The patterns of behavior, beliefs, and values shared by a group of people. cupula   A gelatin-like structure containing a tuft of hairlike sensory receptor cells in the semicircular canals. dark adaptation   Increased sensitivity of the eye in semidarkness following a reduction in overall illumination. day residue   Dream content that is similar to events in the person's waking life. daydreams   Relatively focused thinking about fantasies. decay theory   The theory that forgetting occurs as the memory trace fades over time. decenter   To think about more than one characteristic of a thing at a time; a capacity of concrete operational children. decibel   Measurement of the intensity of perceived sound. declarative memory   Semantic and episodic memory. deep structure   The underlying structure of a statement that holds its meaning. defense mechanisms   According to Freud, the unrealistic strategies used by the ego to discharge tension. deindividuation   State in which people in a group can feel anonymous and unidentifiable and therefore feel less concerned with what others think of their behavior. delay of reinforcement   The passage of time between the response and the positive reinforcement that leads to reduced efficiency of operant conditioning. delusional disorder   A nonschizophrenic disorder characterized by delusions of grandeur and persecution that are more logical than those of paranoid schizophrenics in the absence of hallucinations. delusions   False beliefs that distort reality. dendrites   Extensions of the cell body that usually serve as receiving areas for messages from other neurons. dependent variable   The variable whose quantitative value is expected to depend on the effects of the independent variable. depersonalization   The perceptual experience of one's body or surroundings becoming distorted or unreal in some way. depolarization   The process during which positively charged ions flow into the axon, making it less negatively charged inside. depressants   Drugs that reduce the activity of the central nervous system, leading to a sense of relaxation, drowsiness, and lowered inhibitions. descriptive statistics   Statistics such as the mean and standard deviation that summarize the numerical results of studies. descriptive studies   Methods of observation used to describe predictable behavior and mental processes. development   The more-or-less predictable changes in behavior associated with increasing age. developmental psychology   The field of psychology that focuses on development across the life span. deviation IQ   The intelligence quotient based on the degree of deviation from average of the person's score on an intelligence test. difference threshold   The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected half the time. diffusion of responsibility   The effect of being in a group that apparently reduces the sense of personal responsibility of each group member to act appropriately. discontinuity hypothesis   The view that abnormal behavior is fundamentally different from normal psychological problems. disinhibition   A temporary increase in the strength of an extinguished response caused by an unrelated stimulus event. disjunctive concepts   Concepts defined by the presence of one of two common characteristics or both. disorganized schizophrenia   A subtype of schizophrenia characterized by shallow silliness, extreme social withdrawal, and fragmented delusions and hallucinations. displacement   A defense mechanism in which the individual directs aggressive or sexual feelings away from the primary object to someone or something safe. dispositional attribution   An explanation for behavior that is based on a personal characteristic of the individual. dissociative amnesia   A dissociative disorder that involves a loss of memory and that has a psychological rather than a physical cause. dissociative disorders   A category of conditions involving sudden cognitive changes, such as a sudden loss of memory or loss of one's identity. dissociative fugue states   A period of "wandering" that involves a loss of memory and a change in identity. dissociative identity disorder   A dissociative disorder in which the individual appears to shift abruptly and repeatedly from one "personality" to another. divergent thinking   Thinking that is loosely organized, only partially directed, and unconventional. divided consciousness   The splitting off of two conscious activities that occur simultaneously. dizygotic twins   Twins formed from the fertilization of two ova by two sperm. dominant gene   The gene that produces a trait in an individual even when paired with a recessive gene. dopamine   A neurotransmitter substance used by neurons in the brain that control large muscle movements and by neurons in pleasure and reward systems in the brain. Down syndrome   An abnormality caused by the presence of an additional 21st chromosome. dream interpretation   A method developed by Freud in which the symbols of the manifest content of dreams that are recalled by the patient are interpreted to reveal their latent content. dreaming   Conscious awareness during sleep that primarily occurs during rapid eye-movement (REM) sleep. drug therapy   A medical therapy that uses medications to treat abnormal behavior. dyspareunia   A sexual dysfunction in which the individual experiences pain during intercourse. eardrum   A thin membrane that sound waves cause to vibrate; a structure of the middle ear. early experiences   Experiences occurring very early in development, believed by some to have lasting effects. educational psychology   The field in which principles of learning, cognition, and other aspects of psychology are applied to improve education. efferent neurons   Neurons that transmit messages from the central nervous system to organs and muscles. ego   According to Freud, that part of the mind that uses the reality principle to satisfy the id. ego ideal   According to Freud, the standard of perfect conduct of the superego. egocentric   The selforiented quality in the thinking of preoperational children. elaboration   The process of creating associations between a new memory and existing memories. Electra complex   According to Freud, the transfer of a young girl's sexual desires from her mother to her father after she discovers she has no penis. electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)   A medical therapy that uses electrical current to induce controlled convulsive seizures that alleviate some types of mental disorders. electroencephalogram (EEG)   A measure of electrical brain activity. electroencephalogram (EEG)   A recording of the electrical activity of the brain obtained through electrodes placed on the scalp. electromagnetic radiation   A form of energy including electricity, radio waves, and X rays, of which visible light is a part. emotion   Positive or negative feelings generally in reaction to stimuli that are accompanied by physiological arousal and related behavior. empirical evidence   Evidence based on observations of publicly observable phenomena, such as behavior, that can be confirmed by other observers. encode   To represent information in some form in the memory system. endocrine system   The system of glands that secretes hormones. engram   The partially understood memory trace in the brain that is the biological basis of memory. environmental psychologists   Psychologists who study the effects of the environment on our behavior and mental processes, and the effects of our behavior on the environment. ephedra   A herbal stimulant that may suppress appetite, but may cause serious emotional disturbance. epididymis   The structure that holds sperm cells until ejaculation. epinephrine   A hormone produced by the adrenal glands. episodic memory   Memory for specific experiences that can be defined in terms of time and space. equity theory   The theory that partners will be comfortable in their relationship only when the ratio between their perceived contributions and benefits is equal. erectile dysfunction   A condition in which the penis does not become erect enough for intercourse under sexually arousing circumstances. erogenous zones   A part of the body that releases sexual energy when stimulated. escape conditioning   Operant conditioning in which the behavior is reinforced because it causes a negative event to cease (a form of negative reinforcement). estrogen   A female sex hormone. ethnic group   A group of persons who are descendants of a common group of ancestors. ethnic identity   Each person's sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group. evolutionary psychology   The perspective in psychology that the psychological characteristics of human and nonhuman animals arose through natural selection. evolutionary theory of gender differences   The theory that gender differences are based on genes that resulted from different evolutionary pressures on ancestral women and men. excitement phase   The first stage of the sexual response cycle, during which the penis becomes erect and the vagina lubricates. exhibitionism   The practice of obtaining sexual pleasure by exposing one's genitals to others. experimental control   The requirement that all explanations for differences in the dependent variable are controlled in formal experiments, except for differences in conditions of the independent variable. experimental group   The group in an experiment that receives some value of the independent variable. experimenter bias   Subtle but potentially powerful unintentional influences on the dependent variable caused by experimenters' interacting differently with participants in the experimental and control groups. expressive aphasia   An impairment of the ability to generate spoken language, but not in the comprehension of language. external auditory canal   The tube connecting the pinna to the middle ear. extinction   The process of unlearning a learned response because of the removal of the original source of learning. extraversion   According to Jung, the tendency of some individuals to be friendly and open to the world. extrinsic motivation   Human motives activated by external rewards. fallopian tubes   The tubes through which ova reach the uterus. false memory   Remembering an event that did not occur or that occurred in a way that was substantially different from the memory of the event. family therapy   An approach to psychotherapy that emphasizes an understanding of the roles of each of the members of the family system, usually conducted with all members of the family present. fear of success   The fear of the consequences of success, particularly the envy of others. feelings of inferiority   According to Adler, the feelings that result from children being less powerful than adults that must be overcome during the development of the healthy personality. female sexual arousal disorder   A condition in which sexual arousal does not occur in appropriate circumstances in a female. feminist psychotherapy   An approach to psychotherapy that encourages women to confront issues created by living in a sexist society as part of their psychotherapy. fertilization   The uniting of sperm and ovum, which produces a zygote. fetishism   The practice of obtaining sexual arousal primarily or exclusively from specific objects. figure-ground principle   The Gestalt principle of perception that states that part of a visual stimulus will be the center of our attention and the rest will be the indistinct ground. In many cases, the figure and ground can be reversed in our perception of the same stimulus. fixed interval schedule   A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is given following the first response occurring after a predetermined period of time. fixed ratio schedule   A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is given only after a specified number of responses. fluid intelligence   The ability to learn or invent new strategies to deal with new problems. forebrain   The parts of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex, that cover the hindbrain and midbrain and fill much of the skull. formal experiment   A research method that allows the researcher to manipulate the independent variable to study its effect on the dependent variable. formal operational stage   In Piaget's theory, the period of intellectual development usually reached by about age 11 and characterized by the ability to use abstract concepts. fovea   The central spot of the retina, which contains the greatest concentration of cones. free association   A tool used by Freud in which the patient is encouraged to talk about whatever comes to mind, allowing the contents of the unconscious mind to slip past the censorship of the ego. free nerve endings   Sensory receptor cells in the skin that detect pressure, temperature, and pain. frequency of cycles   The rate of vibration of sound waves; determines pitch. Freud's instinct theory   The theory that aggression is caused by an inborn aggressive instinct. frontal lobes   The part of the cerebral cortex in the front of the skull involved in planning, organization, thinking, decision making, memory, voluntary motor movements, and speech. frustration   The result of being unable to satisfy a motive. frustration-aggression theory   The theory that aggression is a natural reaction to the frustration of important motives. functional MRI   A type of MRI that measures the activity of parts of the brain by measuring the use of oxygen by groups of neurons. functionalism   The nineteenth-century school of psychology that emphasized the useful functions of consciousness. fundamental attribution error   The tendency to underestimate the impact of situations on others while overestimating the impact on oneself. g   A broad general factor of intelligence, a concept endorsed by some investigators of intelligence. gamete   A sex cell containing 23 chromosomes instead of the 46 chromosomes found in other living cells. ganglia   Clusters of cell bodies of neurons outside of the central nervous system. gender   The psychological experience of being male or female. gender identity   One's view of oneself as male or female. gender role   The typical behaviors consistent with being male or female in a given culture. gene   A segment of a chromosome in the nucleus of living cells that carries the genetic code of inheritance. general adaptation syndrome (GAS)   According to Selye, the mobilization of the body to ward off threats, characterized by a three-stage pattern of the alarm reaction, the resistance stage, and the exhaustion stage. generalized anxiety disorder   An uneasy sense of general tension and apprehension for no apparent reason that makes the individual highly uncomfortable because of its prolonged presence. generative   The ability to create an infinite set of utterances using a finite set of elements and rules. genes   Segments of chromosomes made up of sequences of base pairs of adenine, thymine, guanine, and cystine that are the basic biological units of inheritance because they contain all the coded genetic information needed to influence some aspect of a structure or function of the body. genital stage   in which sexual and romantic interest is directed toward one's peers. gestalt   An organized or unified whole. Gestalt psychology   The school of thought based on the belief that human consciousness cannot be broken down into its elements. Gestalt therapy   A humanistic therapy in which the therapist takes an active role to help the client become more aware of his or her feelings. glands   Structures in the body that secrete substances. glial cells   Cells that assist neurons by transporting nutrients to them, producing myelin sheath, and regulating the likelihood of transmission of messages across the synaptic gap. glucagon   A hormone produced by the islets of Langerhans that causes the liver to release sugar into the bloodstream. glutamate   The most widespread excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. gonads   The glands that produce sex cells and hormones important in sexual arousal and that contribute to the development of secondary sex characteristics. graded exposure   A behavior therapy technique in which a person with a phobia is first exposed to a stimulus that is mildly fear provoking. Once the client has mastered his or her anxiety in that situation, he or she is exposed to a graded series of more fearful situations. group therapy   Psychotherapy conducted in groups, typically of four to eight clients at a time. groupthink   The faulty decision-making processes that may occur in groups. gustation   The sense of taste. hallucinations   False perceptual experiences that distort reality. hallucinogens   Drugs that alter perceptual experiences. hammer, anvil, stirrup   Three linked bones of the middle ear, which pass sound waves to the inner ear. health psychology   The field of psychology that uses psychological principles to encourage healthy lifestyles and to minimize the impact of stress. hertz (Hz)   The measurement of the frequency of sound waves in cycles per second. heterosexual   Romantically and sexually attracted to those of the different sex. heuristics   Efficient problem-solving strategies that do not guarantee a correct solution. hindbrain   The lowest part of the brain, located at the base of the skull. hippocampus   The part of the limbic system that plays a role in memory and the processing of emotion. hippocampus   The part of the limbic system that plays a role in emotional arousal and long-term memory. homeostatic mechanisms   Internal body mechanisms that sense biological imbalances and stimulate actions to restore the proper balance. homosexual   Romantically and sexually attracted to those of the same sex, as distinguished from heterosexual. hormones   Chemical substances, produced by endocrine glands, that influence internal organs. human factors engineering   The branch of industrial-organizational psychology interested in the design of machines to be operated by human beings. humanistic psychology   The psychological view that human beings possess an innate tendency to improve and determine their lives by the decisions they make. humanistic theory   The psychological view that human beings possess an innate tendency to improve and to determine their lives through the decisions they make. hyperphagia   Excessive overeating that results from the destruction of the satiety center of the hypothalamus. hypnagogic state   A relaxed state of dreamlike awareness between wakefulness and sleep. hypnosis   An altered state of consciousness in which the individual is highly relaxed and susceptible to suggestions. hypochondriasis   A mild form of somatization disorder characterized by excessive concern about one's health. hypothalamus   The part of the forebrain involved with motives, emotions, and the functions of the autonomic nervous system. hypothesis   A prediction based on a theory that is tested in a study. id   According to Freud, the inborn part of the unconscious mind that uses the primary process to satisfy its needs and that acts according to the pleasure principle. ideal self   According to humanists, the person one wishes one were. identification   The tendency to base one's identity and actions on individuals who are successful in gaining satisfaction from life. immune system   The complex body system of defenses to illness, such as white cells and natural killer cells of the blood. imprinting   A form of early learning that occurs in some animals during a critical period. in-basket exercise   A type of management simulation task in which the individual attempts to solve a problem that is typical of the ones that appear in a manager's "in-basket." incentives   External cues that activate motives. incest   Sexual relations between relatives. independent variable   The variable whose quantitative value is independently controlled by the researcher. industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists   Psychologists who study organizations and seek ways to improve the functioning and human benefits of business. inhalants   Toxic substances that produce a sense of intoxication when inhaled. inhibited female orgasm   A female sexual dysfunction in which the individual is unable to experience orgasm. inhibited sexual desire   A condition in which a person desires sex rarely or not at all. inner-directedness   A force that humanists believe all people possess that internally leads them to grow and improve. insanity   A legal definition concerning a person's inability to tell right from wrong, ability to understand the trial proceedings, or whether the person is a direct danger to self or others. insight   A form of cognitive change that involves recognition of previously unseen relationships. insomnia   A disorder in which the person has difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep. insulin   A hormone produced by the islets of Langerhans that reduces the amount of sugar in the bloodstream. intelligence   The cognitive abilities of an individual to learn from experience, to reason well, and to cope with the demands of daily living. intelligence quotient (IQ)   A numerical value of intelligence derived from the results of an intelligence test. intelligent tutoring systems   An approach to learning in which computers provide tutoring to students. intensity   The density of vibrating air molecules, which determines the loudness of sound. interference theory   The theory that forgetting occurs because similar memories interfere with the storage or retrieval of information. interneuron   Neurons in the central nervous system that connect other neurons. interpersonal psychotherapy   A form of psychological therapy, based on the theories of neo-Freudian Harry Stack Sullivan, that focuses on the accurate identification and communication of feelings and the improvement of current social relationships. interview   A subjective method of personality assessment that involves questioning techniques designed to reveal the personality of a client. intrinsic motivation   Human motives stimulated by the inherent nature of the activity or its natural consequences. introspection   According to Jung, the tendency of some individuals to be shy and to focus their attention on themselves. ions   Electrically charged particles. iris   The colored part of the eye behind the cornea that regulates the amount of light that enters. islets of Langerhans   Endocrine cells in the pancreas that regulate the level of sugar in the blood. James-Lange theory of emotion   The theory that conscious emotional experiences are caused by feedback to the cerebral cortex from physiological reactions and behavior. job performance ratings   Ratings of the actual performance of employees in their jobs by supervisors. kinesthetic receptors   Receptors in the muscles, joints, and skin that provide information about movement, posture, and orientation. Korsakoff's syndrome   A disorder involving both anterograde and retrograde amnesia caused by excessive use of alcohol. labia majora   The larger, outer lips of the vulva. labia minora   The smaller, inner lips of the vulva. language   A symbolic code used in communication. latency stage   According to Freud, the fourth psychosexual stage (from about 6 to 11 years), during which sexual energy is sublimated and converted into socially valued activities. latent content   According to Freud, the true meaning of dreams that is found in the symbols in their manifest content. lateral hypothalamus   A portion of the hypothalamus involved in feeling hungry and starting to eat (the feeding center). learned taste aversion   Negative reaction to a particular taste that has been associated with nausea or other illness. learning   Any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about through experience. learning set   Improvement in the rate of learning to solve new problems through practice solving similar problems. lens   The transparent portion of the eye that adjusts to focus light on the retina. levels of processing model   An alternative to the stage theory of memory stating that the distinction between short-term and long-term memory is a matter of degree rather than different kinds of memory and is based on how incoming information is processed. libido   The energy of the life instincts of sex, hunger, and thirst. life events   Psychologically significant events that occur in a person's life, such as divorce, childbirth, or change in employment. light adaptation   Regaining sensitivity of the eye to bright light following an increase in overall illumination. limbic system   A complex brain system, composed of the amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulate cortex, that works with the hypothalamus in emotional arousal. linguistic relativity hypothesis   The idea that the structure of a language may influence the way individuals think. long-term memory (LTM)   The third stage of memory, involving the storage of information that is kept for long periods of time. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)   An imaging technique using magnetic resonance to obtain detailed views of the brain structure and function. mainstreaming   The practice of integrating children with special needs into regular classrooms. major depression   An affective disorder characterized by episodes of deep unhappiness, loss of interest in life, and other symptoms. male sexual arousal disorders   Conditions in which sexual arousal does not occur in appropriate circumstances in a male. management by objectives   The strategy of giving employees specific goals but giving them considerable freedom in deciding how to reach those goals. mania   A disturbance of mood in which the individual experiences a euphoria without cause that is characterized by unrealistic optimism and heightened sensory pleasures. manifest content   According to Freud, the literal meaning of dreams. mantras   Words or sounds containing religious meaning that are used during meditation. Maslow's hierarchy of motives   The concept that more basic needs must be met before higher-level motives become active. mastery learning   The concept that children should never progress from one learning task to another until they have mastered the more basic one. maturation   Systematic physical growth of the body, including the nervous system. mean   The average of a set of scores. median   The middle of a set of scores that are ordered from smallest to largest where 50% have higher and 50% have lower scores. medical therapies   Those therapies— including drug therapy, electroconvulsive therapy, and psychosurgery—generally designed to correct a physical condition that is believed to be the cause of a psychological disorder. meditation   Several methods of focusing concentration away from thoughts and feelings and generating a sense of relaxation. medulla   The swelling just above the spinal cord within the hindbrain responsible for controlling breathing and a variety of reflexes. menarche   The first menstrual period. menopause   The cessation of menstruation and the capacity to reproduce in women. mental processes   Private psychological activities that include thinking, perceiving, and feeling. mental set   A habitual way of approaching or perceiving a problem. metabolism   The process through which the body uses energy. metabolism   The rate at which cells use energy. midbrain   The small area at the top of the hindbrain that serves primarily as a reflex center for orienting the eyes and ears. mindfulness   The state of focusing conscious awareness completely on what is going on at the present moment. mode   The most common score in a set of scores. modeling   Learning based on observation of the behavior of another. monocular cues   Eight visual cues that can be seen with one eye and that allow us to perceive depth. monozygotic twins   Twins formed from a single ovum; they are identical in appearance because they have the same genetic structure. mons   The fleshy mound that sits at the top of the vulva. mood disorders   Psychological disorders involving depression and/or abnormal elation. morphemes   The smallest units of meaning in a language. motivated forgetting   Forgetting that is believed to be based on the upsetting or threatening nature of the information that is forgotten. motivation   The internal state or condition that activates and gives direction to our thoughts, feelings, and actions. motive for affiliation   The need to be with other people and to have personal relationships. motives   Internal states or conditions that activate behavior and give it direction. multiple approach-avoidance conflict   Conflict that requires the individual to choose between two alternatives, each of which contains both positive and negative consequences. myelin sheath   The insulating fatty covering wrapped around the axon that speeds the transmission of neural messages. myoclonia   An abrupt movement that sometimes occurs during the hypnagogic state in which the sleeper often experiences a sense of falling. narcolepsy   A sleep disorder in which the person suddenly falls asleep during activities usually performed when fully awake, even when the person has had adequate sleep. narcotics   Powerful and highly addictive depressants. naturalistic observation   A research method based on recording behavior as it occurs in natural life settings. negative reinforcement   Negative reinforcement occurs when (1) a behavior is followed by the removal or the avoidance of a negative event, and (2) the probability that the behavior will occur in the future increases as a result. neonatal period   The first two weeks of life following birth. nerve   A bundle of long neurons outside the brain and spinal cord. neural pruning   The normal process of selective loss of gray matter in the brain over time, which is thought to improve the efficiency of neural systems by eliminating unnecessary cells. neurogenesis   The hypothesized growth of new neurons in adult mammals. neuron   An individual nerve cell. neuropeptides   A large group of neurotransmitters sometimes referred to as neuromodulators, as they appear to broadly influence the action of the other neurotransmitters. neuroscience perspective   The viewpoint in psychology that focuses on the nervous system in explaining behavior and mental processes. neurotransmitters   Chemical substances, produced by axons, that transmit messages across the synapse. night terrors   Upsetting nocturnal experiences that occur most often in preschool-age children during deep non-REM sleep. nightmares   Dreams that occur during REM sleep and whose content is exceptionally frightening, sad, angry, or in some other way uncomfortable. nocioceptors   Receptors for stimuli that are experienced as painful. norepinephrine   A hormone produced by the adrenal glands. norepinephrine   A neurotransmitter believed to be involved in vigilance and attention and released by sympathetic autonomic neurons and the adrenal glands. normal distribution   The symmetrical pattern of scores on a scale in which a majority of the scores are clustered near the center and a minority are at either extreme. norms   Standards used as the basis of comparison for scores on a test. novel stimulation   New or changed experiences. obedience   Doing what one is told to do by people in authority. object permanence   The understanding that objects continue to exist when they are not in view. objectivity   Lack of subjectivity in a test question so that the same score is given regardless of who does the scoring. observational methods   Methods of personality assessment that involve watching a person's actual behavior in a natural or simulated situation. obsessive-compulsive disorders   Disorders that involve obsessions. occipital lobes   The part of the cerebral cortex, located at the base of the back of the head, that plays an essential role in the processing of sensory information from the eyes. Oedipus complex   According to Freud, the unconscious wish of all male children to kill their fathers and sexually possess their mothers. olfaction   The sense of smell. olfactory epithelium   The sheet of receptor cells at the top of the nasal cavity. operant conditioning   Learning in which the consequences of behavior lead to changes in the probability of its occurrence. operational definition   A definition used in science that is explicitly based on the procedures, or operations, used to measure a scientific phenomenon, including behavior. opiates   Narcotic drugs derived from the opium poppy. opponent-process theory   The theory of color vision contending that the visual system has two kinds of color processors, which respond to light in either the red-green or yellow-blue ranges of wavelength. opponent-process theory of motivation   Solomon's theory of the learning of new motives based on changes over time in contrasting feelings. optic chiasm   The area in the brain where half of the optic nerve fibers from each eye cross to the opposite side of the brain. optic nerve   The nerve that carries neural messages about vision to the brain. optimal level of arousal   The apparent human need for a com fortable level of stimulation, achieved by act ing in ways that increase or decrease it. oral aggressive personality   A personality type in which the person seeks pleasure by being verbally hostile to others. oral dependent personality   A personality type in which the person seeks pleasure through overeating, smoking, and other oral means. oral stage   According to Freud, the first psychosexual stage, in which id gratification is focused on the mouth. organ of Corti   A sensory receptor in the cochlea that transduces sound waves into coded neural impulses. organizational citizenship   Contributing to the organization by supporting its goals, cooperating with and helping fellow employees, and going beyond the requirements of the job to help the organization. orgasm   The reflexive phase of the sexual response cycle accompanied by peak levels of arousal and pleasure and usually by ejaculation in males. oval window   The membrane of the inner ear that vibrates in response to movement of the stirrup, creating waves in the fluid of the cochlea. ovaries   Female endocrine glands that secrete sex-related hormones and produce ova, or eggs. pancreas   The organ near the stomach that contains the islets of Langerhans. panic anxiety disorder   A pattern of anxiety in which long periods of calm are broken by an intensely uncomfortable attack of anxiety. papillae   Clusters of taste buds on the tongue. parallel play   Playing near but not with another child. paranoid schizophrenia   A subtype of schizophrenia in which the individual holds delusions of persecution and grandeur that seriously distort reality. parasympathetic nervous system   The division of the autonomic nervous system that promotes bodily maintenance and energy conservation and storage under nonstressful conditions. parathormone   A hormone that regulates ion levels in neurons and controls excitability of the nervous system. parathyroid glands   Four glands embedded in the thyroid that produce parathormone. paraventricular nucleus   A part of the hypothalamus that plays a role in the motive of hunger by regulating the level of blood sugar. parietal lobes   The part of the cerebral cortex that is behind the frontal lobes at the top of the skull and that contains the somatosensory area. partial reinforcement effect   The phenomenon that responses that have been reinforced on variable ratio or variable interval schedules are more difficult to extinguish than responses that have been continuously reinforced. participative management   The practice of involving employees at all levels in management decisions. passionate love   The mixture of romantic, sexual, and other feelings of love. peak experiences   Intensely moving experiences in which the individual feels a sense of unity with the world. pedophilia   The practice of obtaining pleasure from sexual contact with children. penis   The tubular structure that becomes erect during sexual arousal and through which sperm is ejaculated. penis envy   According to Freud, the desire of a girl to possess a penis. perception   The process of organizing and interpreting information received from the outside world. perceptual constancy   The tendency for perceptions of objects to remain relatively unchanged in spite of changes in raw sensations. performance tests   Employee selection tests that resemble the actual manual performance required on a job. peripheral nervous system   The network of nerves that branches from the brain and spinal cord to all parts of the body. person perception   The process of forming impressions of others. person 3 situation interactionism   The view that behavior is influenced by a combination of the characteristics of both the person and the situation. person variables   All characteristics of an individual that are relatively enduring, such as ways of thinking, beliefs, or physiological reactivity to stress. personal unconscious   According to Jung, the motives, conflicts, and information that are repressed by a person because they are threatening to that individual. personality   The sum total of the typical ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that makes each person different from other people. personality disorders   Psychological disorders that are believed to result from personalities that developed improperly during childhood. persuasion   The process of changing another person's attitudes through arguments and other related means. phallic personality   Personality type caused by fixation in the phallic stage in which the person is selfish, impulsive, and lacking in genuine feeling for others. phallic stage   According to Freud, the third psychosexual stage (from 3 to 6 years), in which gratification is focused on the genitals. pheromones   Chemicals that stimulate receptors in the vomeronasal organ in some animals, influencing some aspects of reproductive behavior. phi phenomenon   The perception of apparent movement between two stationary stimuli. phobia   An intense, irrational fear. phonemes   The smallest units of sound in a language. pineal gland   The endocrine gland that is largely responsible for the regulation of biological rhythms. pinna   The external part of the ear. pitch   The experience of sound vibrations sensed as high or low. pituitary gland   The body's master gland, located near the bottom of the brain, whose secretions help regulate the activity of the other glands in the endocrine system. placebo effect   Changes in behavior produced by a condition in a formal experiment thought to be inert or inactive, such as an inactive pill. plasticity   The ability of parts of the brain, particularly the cerebral cortex, to acquire new functions that partly or completely replace the functions of a damaged part of the brain. plateau phase   High levels of sexual arousal and pleasure that are maintained for variable periods of time. pleasure principle   According to Freud, the attempt of the id to seek immediate pleasure and avoid pain, regardless of how harmful it might be to others. polarization   The tendency for group discussion to make beliefs and attitudes more extreme. polarized   The resting state of a neuron, when more negative ions are inside and more positive ions are outside the cell membrane. pons   The part of the hindbrain that is involved in balance, hearing, and some parasympathetic functions. positive reinforcement   Any consequence of behavior that leads to an increase in the probability of its occurrence. positron emission tomography (PET)   An imaging technique that reveals the functions of the brain. post-traumatic stress disorder   The condition caused by extremely stressful experiences in which the person later experiences anxiety and irritability; has upsetting memories, dreams, and realistic flashbacks of the experience; and tries to avoid anything that reminds him or her of the experience. preconscious mind   That portion of the mind containing information that is not presently conscious but can be easily brought into consciousness. prejudice   A harmful attitude based on inaccurate generalizations about a group of people. premature ejaculation   A male sexual dysfunction in which the individual reaches orgasm and ejaculates sperm too early. preoperational stage   In Piaget's theory, the period of cognitive development from ages 2 to 7. pressure   Stress that arises from the threat of negative events. primacy effect   The tendency for first impressions to heavily influence opinions about other people. primary motives   Human motives for things that are necessary for survival, such as food, water, and warmth. primary process thinking   According to Freud, the attempt by the id to satisfy its needs by forming a wish-fulfilling mental image of the desired object. primary reinforcers   Innate positive reinforcers that do not have to be acquired through learning. primary sex characteristics   Ovulation and menstruation in females and production of sperm in males. proactive interference   Interference created by memories from prior learning. problem solving   The cognitive process through which information is used to reach a goal that is blocked by some obstacle. procedural memory   Memory for motor movements and skills. progressive relaxation training   A method of learning to deeply relax the muscles of the body. Project Follow Through   A federally sponsored program designed to help educate economically disadvantaged children. projective test   A test that uses ambiguous stimuli designed to reveal the contents of the client's unconscious mind. prostate gland   One of the structures that produce fluid for semen. proximity principle   The Gestalt principle of perception that states that parts of a visual stimulus that are close together will be perceived as belonging together. psychoanalysis   The technique of helping persons with emotional problems based on Sigmund Freud's theory of the unconscious mind. psychoanalysis   A method of psychotherapy developed by Freud based on his belief that the root of all psychological problems is unconscious conflicts among the id, the ego, and the superego. psychoanalytic theory   Freud's theory that the origin of personality lies in the balance among the id, the ego, and the superego. psychological motives   Motives related to the individual's happiness and wellbeing, but not to survival. psychology   The science of behavior and mental processes. psychometrics   The perspective in psychology founded by Binet that focuses on the measurement of mental functions. psychophysics   A specialty area of psychology that studies sensory limits, sensory adaptation, and related topics. psychosexual stages   In the personality theory of Sigmund Freud, developmental periods during which the sexual energy of the id finds different sources of satisfaction. psychosurgery   A medical therapy that involves operating on the brain in an attempt to alleviate some types of mental disorders. psychotherapy   A form of therapy in which a trained professional uses methods based on psychological theories to help a person with psychological problems. psychotropic drugs   The various classes of drugs, including stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens, that alter conscious experience. puberty   The point in development at which the individual is first physically capable of sexual reproduction. punishment   A negative consequence of a behavior, which leads to a decrease in the frequency of the behavior that produces it. pupil   The opening of the iris. quantitative measures   Capable of being measured in numerical terms. random assignment   The requirement that participants be assigned randomly to experimental conditions in formal experiments rather than in a systematic way. rape   The act of forcing sexual activity on an unwilling person. rape trauma syndrome   The effects of rape on the emotions, behavior, and wellbeing of many victims long after the rape has occurred. ratio IQ   The intelligence quotient based on the ratio between the person's mental age and chronological age. reality principle   According to Freud, the attempt by the ego to find safe, realistic ways of meeting the needs of the id. reappraisal   Changing how a person thinks about or interprets a potentially stressful event to reduce its stressfulness. recall method   A measure of memory based on the ability to retrieve information from long-term memory with few cues. receptor sites   Sites on the neuron that receive the neurotransmitter substance. recessive gene   The gene that produces a trait in an individual only when the same recessive gene has been inherited from both parents. reciprocal determination   Bandura's observation that the individual's behavior and the social learning environment continually influence one another. recognition method   A measure of memory based on the ability to select correct information from among the options provided. reconstruction theory   The theory that information stored in LTM sometimes changes over time to become more consistent with our beliefs, knowledge, and expectations. reflection   A technique in humanistic psychotherapy in which the therapist reflects the emotions of the client to help clients clarify their feelings. refractory period   The period of time following orgasm during which males are incapable of sexual arousal. rehearsal   Mental repetition of information to retain it longer in shortterm memory. relearning method   A measure of memory based on the length of time it takes to relearn forgotten material. reliability   A test's ability to produce similar scores if the test is administered on different occasions or by different examiners. REM sleep   Rapid-eye-movement sleep, characterized by movement of the eyes under the lids; often accompanies dreams. replication   Repeating studies based on the scientific principle that the results of studies should be doubted until the same results have been found in similar studies by other researchers. representativeness heuristic   The strategy of making judgments about the unknown on the assumption that it is similar to what we know. repression   Sigmund Freud's theory that unpleasant information is often pushed into unconsciousness without our being aware of it. resistance   Any form of patient opposition to the process of psychoanalysis. resolution phase   The stage in the sexual response cycle following orgasm when arousal and pleasure diminish. response prevention   The prevention of avoidance responses to ensure that the individual sees that the negative consequence will not occur to speed up the extinction of avoidance responses. retarded ejaculation   A condition in which a male does not ejaculate despite adequate sexual stimulation. reticular formation   Sets of neurons in the medulla and pons from which neurons project down the spinal cord to play a role in maintaining muscle tone and cardiac reflexes and upward throughout the cerebral cortex where they influence wakefulness, arousal level, and attention. reticular formation   Sets of neurons that project from the medulla and pons downward into the spinal cord to play a role in maintaining muscle tone and cardiac reflexes and also project upward throughout the cerebral cortex where they influence wakefulness, arousal level, and attention. retina   The area at the back of the eye on which images are formed and that contains the rods and cones. retroactive interference   Interference created by memories from later learning. retrograde amnesia   A memory disorder characterized by an inability to retrieve old long-term memories, generally for a specific period of time extending back from the beginning of the disorder. reversibility   The concept understood by concrete operational children that logical propositions can be reversed (if 2 + 3 = 5, then 5 - 3 = 2). rods   The 125 million cells located outside the center of the retina that transduce light waves into neural impulses, thereby coding information about light and dark. role playing   A therapeutic technique in which the therapist and client act as if they were people in problematic situations. rooting reflex   An automatic response in which an infant turns its head toward stimulation on the cheek. round window   The membrane that relieves pressure from the vibrating waves in the cochlear fluid. saccule, utricle   Fluid-filled sacs of the vestibular organ that inform the brain about the body's orientation. sample   A group of human or nonhuman research participants studied to learn about an entire population of human beings or animals. schizoid personality disorder   A personality disorder characterized by blunted emotions, lack of interest in social relationships, and withdrawal into a solitary existence. schizophrenia   A psychological disorder involving cognitive disturbance (delusions and hallucinations), disorganization, and reduced enjoyment and interests. school psychologists   Psychologists who aid schools by testing children to determine eligibility for placement in special education programs and who consult with teachers and parents. science   Approach to knowledge based on systematic observation. scientific method   Method of studying nature based on systematic observation and rules of evidence. scrotum   The loose skin sac that encloses the testes. secondary reinforcers   Learned positive reinforcers. secondary sex characteristics   Development of the breasts and hips in females; growth of the testes, broadening of the shoulders, lowered voice, and growth of the penis and facial hair in males; and growth of pubic and other body hair in both sexes. sedatives   Depressants that in mild doses produce a state of calm relaxation. self   According to humanists, the person one thinks one is. self-actualization   According to Maslow, the seldom reached full result of the inner-directed drive of humans to grow, improve, and use their potential to the fullest. self-concept   Our subjective perception of who we are and what we are like. self-efficacy   According to Bandura, the perception of being capable of achieving one's goals. self-regulation   According to Bandura, the process of cognitively reinforcing and punishing our own behavior, depending on whether it meets our personal standards. semantic content   The meaning in symbols, such as language. semantic memory   Memory for meaning without reference to the time and place of learning. semen   The fluid that contains sperm cells. semicircular canals   Three nearly circular tubes in the vestibular organ that inform the brain about tilts of the head and body. seminal vesicle   One of the structures that produce fluid for semen. semipermeable   A surface that allows some, but not all, particles to pass through. sensation   The process of receiving, translating, and transmitting messages from the outside world to the brain. sense organs   Organs that receive stimuli. sensorimotor stage   In Piaget's theory, the period of cognitive development from birth to 2 years. sensory adaptation   Weakened magnitude of a sensation resulting from prolonged presentation of the stimulus. sensory receptor cells   Cells in sense organs that translate messages into neural impulses that are sent to the brain. sensory register   The first stage of memory, in which an exact image of each sensory experience is held briefly until it can be processed. separation anxiety   The distress experienced by infants when they are separated from their caregivers. serial position effect   The finding that immediate recall of items listed in a fixed order is often better for items at the beginning and end of the list than for those in the middle. serotonin   A neurotransmitter used by systems of neurons believed to regulate sleep, dreaming, appetite, anxiety, depression, and the inhibition of violence. sex   The distinction between male and female based on biological characteristics. sexual aversion disorder   A condition in which a person fearfully avoids sexual behavior. sexual dysfunction   An inability to engage successfully or comfortably in normal sexual activities. sexual harassment   Unwanted sexual advances, comments, or any other form of coercive sexual behavior by others. sexual masochism   A condition in which receiving pain is sexually exciting. sexual orientation   The tendency to prefer romantic and sexual partners of the same or different sex. sexual sadism   The practice of obtaining sexual pleasure by inflicting pain on others. sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)   Physical diseases, such as syphilis and AIDS, that are transmitted through sexual contact. shaping   A strategy of positively reinforcing behaviors that are successively more similar to desired behaviors. short-term memory (STM)   The second stage of memory, in which five to nine bits of information can be stored for brief periods of time. similarity principle   The Gestalt principle of perception that states that parts of a visual stimulus that are similar will be perceived as belonging together. simulated management task   A contrived task requiring managerial skills that is given to candidates for management positions to evaluate their potential as managers. situational attribution   An explanation for behavior that is based on an external cause. situationism   The view that behavior is not consistent but is strongly influenced by different situations. Skinner box   A cage for animals, equipped with a response lever and a food tray dispenser, used in research on operant conditioning. sleep apnea   The sudden interruption of breathing during sleep. sleep disorders   Disturbances of sleep. sleeper effects   According to Hovland, the potential for low-credibility speakers to influence opinion after a period of time. sleeptalking   Talking during any phase of the sleep cycle. sleepwalking   Waking and carrying on complicated activities during the deepest part of non-REM sleep. social anthropology   A field of social science that studies the ways in which cultures are both similar and different from one another and how cultures influence human behavior. social facilitation   An effect in which working in a group improves one's performance on individual projects. social learning theory   The viewpoint that the most important aspects of our behavior are learned from other persons in society—family, friends, and culture. social loafing   The tendency of members of groups to work less hard when group performance is measured than when individual performance is measured. social norms   Guidelines provided by every culture for judging acceptable and unacceptable behavior. social phobia   A phobic fear of social interactions, particularly those with strangers and those in which the person might be viewed negatively. social psychology   The branch of psychology that studies individuals as they interact with others. social roles   Culturally determined guidelines that tell people what behavior is expected of them. social-role theory of gender differences   The theory that the opportunities and restrictions inherent in women's and men's different social roles create psychological gender differences. social skills training   The use of techniques of operant conditioning to teach social skills to persons who lack them. social support   The role played by friends and relatives in providing advice, assistance, and someone in whom to confide private feelings. sociocultural perspective   The theory of psychology that states it is necessary to understand one's culture, ethnic identity, and other sociocultural factors to fully understand a person. solitary play   Playing alone. somatic nervous system   The division of the peripheral nervous system that carries messages from the sense organs to the central nervous system and from the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles. somatization disorders   Intensely and chronically uncomfortable psychological conditions that involve numerous symptoms of somatic (body) illnesses without physical cause. somatoform disorders   Disorders in which the individual experiences the symptoms of physical health problems that have psychological rather than physical causes. somatoform pain disorders   Somatoform disorders in which the individual experiences a relatively specific and chronic pain that has a psychological rather than a physical cause. somatosensory area   The strip of parietal cortex running parallel to the motor area of the frontal lobes that plays a role in body senses. sound waves   Cyclical changes in air pressure that constitute the stimulus for hearing. specialized end bulbs   Sensory receptor cells that detect pressure. specific phobia   A phobic fear of one relatively specific thing. spinal cord   The nerve fibers in the spinal column. spontaneous recovery   A temporary increase in the strength of a conditioned response, which is likely to occur during extinction after the passage of time. stage   One of several time periods in development that is qualitatively distinct from the periods that come before and after. stage theory of memory   A model of memory based on the idea that we store information in three separate but linked memories. standard deviation   A mathematical measure of how spread out scores are from the mean score. standardization   Administering a test in the same way to all individuals. statistical significance   A decision based on statistical calculations that a finding was unlikely to have occurred by chance. stereotype   An inaccurate generalization on which a prejudice is based. stimulants   Drugs that increase the activity of motivational centers in the brain, providing a sense of energy and wellbeing. stimulus   Any aspect of the outside world that directly influences our behavior or conscious experience. stimulus discrimination   The tendency for responses to occur more often in the presence of one stimulus than others. stimulus generalization   The tendency for similar stimuli to elicit the same response. stimulus incorporation   Stimuli occurring during sleep that are incorporated into dreams either directly or in altered form. stress   Any event or circumstance that strains or exceeds an individual's ability to cope. structuralism   The nineteenth-century school of psychology that sought to determine the structure of the mind through controlled introspection. structuring   The activities of managers that organize and direct the work of employees. subjective reality   Each person's unique perception of reality that, according to humanists, plays a key role in organizing our personalities. sublimation   According to Freud, a form of displacement in which a socially desirable goal is substituted for a socially harmful goal; the best form of displacement for society as a whole. superego   According to Freud, that part of the mind that opposes the desires of the id by enforcing moral restrictions and by striving to attain perfection. surface structure   The superficial spoken or written structure of a statement. survey method   A research method that uses interviews and questionnaires with individuals. symbolization   In Rogers' theory, the process of representing experience, thoughts, or feelings in mental symbols of which we are aware. sympathetic nervous system   The division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body to respond to psychological or physical stress. synapse   The space between the axon of one neuron and another neuron. synaptic facilitation   The process by which neural activity causes structural changes in the synapses that facilitate more efficient learning and memory. synaptic gap   The small space between two neurons at a synapse. synaptic terminal   The knoblike tips of axons. synaptic vesicles   Tiny vessels containing stored quantities of the neurotransmitter substance held in the synaptic terminals of the axon. syntax   The grammatical rules of a language. syphilis   A sexually transmitted disease caused by spirochete bacteria. tacit intelligence   The practical knowledge and skills needed to deal with everyday problems that are usually not taught in school. tactile discs   Sensory receptor cells that detect pressure. taste cells   The sensory receptor cells for gustation located in the taste buds. telegraphic speech   The abbreviated speech of 2-year-olds. temporal lobes   The part of the cerebral cortex that extends back from the area of the temples beneath the frontal and parietal lobes and that contains areas involved in the sense of hearing and understanding language. testes   Male endocrine glands that secrete sex-related hormones and produce sperm cells. testosterone   A male sex hormone. testosterone   A male sex hormone. thalamus   The part of the forebrain that primarily routes sensory messages to appropriate parts of the brain. theories   Tentative explanations of facts and relationships in sciences. thyroid gland   The gland below the voice box that regulates metabolism. thyroxin   A hormone produced by the thyroid that is necessary for proper mental development in children and helps determine weight and level of activity in adults. timbre   The characteristic quality of a sound as determined by the complexity of the sound wave. traits   Relatively enduring patterns of behavior that are relatively consistent across situations. transcendental state   An altered state of consciousness, sometimes achieved during meditation, that is said to transcend normal human experience. transduction   The translation of energy from one form to another. transductive reasoning   Errors in understanding cause-andeffect relationships that are commonly made by preoperational children. transference   The phenomenon in psychoanalysis in which the patient comes to feel and act toward the therapist in ways that resemble how he or she feels and acts toward other significant adults. transformational management   A style in which the manager attempts to positively transform employees for the better by setting a good example, clearly stating goals and helping employees achieve them, seeking innovative solutions, and mentoring and empowering employees. transsexualism   A condition in which an individual feels trapped in the body of the wrong sex. transvestism   The practice of obtaining sexual pleasure by dressing in the clothes of the opposite sex. trial and error   The random application of one possible solution after another. trichromatic theory   The theory of color vision contending that the eye has three different kinds of cones, each of which responds to light of one range of wavelength. Type A personality   The pattern of behavior characterized most by intense competitiveness, hostility, overwork, and a sense of time urgency. unconditioned response (UCR)   An unlearned, inborn reaction to an unconditioned stimulus. unconditioned stimulus (UCS)   A stimulus that can elicit a response without any learning. unconscious mind   All mental activity of which we are unaware. unconscious mind   Mental processes that occur without conscious awareness. unconscious mind   The part of the mind of which we can never be directly aware; the storehouse of primitive instinctual motives and of memories and emotions that have been repressed. uterus   The muscular structure that carries the fetus during pregnancy. vaginismus   A female sexual dysfunction in which the individual experiences involuntary contractions of the vaginal walls, making the vagina too narrow to allow the penis to enter comfortably. validity   The extent to which a test measures what it's supposed to measure. variable   A factor that can be assigned a numerical value. variable interval schedule   A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is given following the first response occurring after a variable amount of time. variable ratio schedule   A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is given after a varying number of responses have been made. vas deferens   The structure that carries sperm from the epididymis toward the outside of the body during ejaculation. ventromedial hypothalamus   A part of the hypothalamus involved in inhibiting eating when sufficient food has been consumed (the satiety center). vestibular organ   The sensory structures in the inner ear that provide the brain with information about orientation and movement of the head and body. vicarious punishment   Observed punishment of the behavior of a model, which also decreases the probability of the same behavior in the observer. vicarious reinforcement   Observed reinforcement of the behavior of a model, which also increases the probability of the same behavior in the observer. visual acuity   Clarity and sharpness of vision. visual illusion   Visual stimuli in which the cues used in visual perception create a false perception. vomeronasal organ   An organ in the nasal cavity of many animals that contains receptors for pheromones. voyeurism   The practice of obtaining sexual pleasure by watching members of the opposite sex undressing or engaging in sexual activities. vulva   The external genital structures of the female. wavelength   The frequency of light waves, which determines the hue we perceive. Weber's law   A law stating that the amount of change in a stimulus needed to detect a difference is in direct proportion to the intensity of the original stimulus. Wernicke's aphasia   A form of aphasia in which persons can speak fluently and cannot make sense out of language spoken to them by others. Wernicke's area   The language area of the cortex that plays an essential role in understanding spoken language. Yerkes-Dodson law   A law stating that effective performance is more likely if the level of arousal is suitable for the activity. zygote   The stable cell resulting from fertilization; in humans, it has 46 chromosomes—23 from the sperm and 23 from the ovum.
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