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Organizational Behavior: Solutions for Management
Paul D. Sweeney, University of Central Florida
Dean B. McFarlin, University of Dayton
Power and Influence: Exercising Leadership and Practicing Politics

Chapter Outline

  1. Power Sources and Influence Tactics: Two Sides of the Same Coin

    2. Leverage sources are what leaders use to get individuals to do what they want them to do. This may involve influencing the attitudes, perceptions, and behavior of the individuals. It is stated that leadership is an influence process and involves a variety of targets.
    1. It would be accurate to say that power is something that is usually accessed through various influence tactics.
    2. Any influence attempt results in one of three possible outcomes:
      • Resistance: The influence attempt has backfired and the target is acting against the leader's wishes.
      • Compliance: The target is performing the desired behavior however, without putting out maximum effort.
      • Commitment: This is the most desired outcome. The target is responding to the influence attempt with maximum effort and enthusiasm.
    3. Power: the leader's potential capacity to influence others.
    4. Influence tactics come in various shapes and sizes from simple requests to the building of complex alliances.
    5. The effectiveness of the tactics used depends on the source of power being used and the target person.
  2. Developing Power and Using It Effectively

    3. Basically, managers have two sources of power, themselves and the position they occupy.
    1. Personal Power:
      • Personal power: includes sources of power that managers have to develop on their own, such as expertise and referent power.
      • Expertise: involves more than just technical skills and know-how; to leverage expertise as a power source, the people surrounding a manager must perceive him or her to be an expert.
      • Referent power: involves feelings of liking, affection, and loyalty toward the manager.
      • Research indicates that expertise and referent power are more likely to be tapped by effective managers than any other sources of power.
    2. Position Power:
      • Ultimately, occupying a particular position is not enough to secure a reliable base of power.
      • Steps effective managers must take to build, use, and maintain their power positions include:
      • Developing an extensive network of contacts and alliances that radiates out from their position.
      1. Legitimate Authority:
        • Managers' real legitimacy depends on subordinate perceptions.
        • If a manager's credibility is somehow damaged in the eyes of subordinates, exercising legitimate authority will be much more difficult.
      2. Control Over Information:
        • In many cases, the position managers occupy and their location in the organizational hierarchy gives them control over information.
        • Control, in this instance, means having access to information that is not generally available and managing its distribution to others.
        • Control can go beyond rank:
        • Access to valuable information.
        • Connections to the external environment that may provide important clues to external constituencies.
        • Certain units may have incredible power due to their importance, unique function, or location in the firm.
      3. Control Over Rewards:
        • Rewards may include everything from pay raises and bonuses to the allocation of scarce or limited resources.
      4. Control Over Punishments:
        • Punishment is the flip side of rewards and involves in taking rewards away or preventing individuals from acquiring them in the first place.
        • A manager's style that uses threats, intimidation, and coercion almost always results in a hostile and demoralized workplace.
      5. Control Over the Environment:
        • Control over the physical layout of the workplace and how work is scheduled and organized are indirect ways managers can influence people around them.
      6. Power Abuse:
        • Power abuses include:
        • Manipulation of subordinate adoration to pursue selfish agendas.
        • Nefarious purposes:
        • Rewarding friends or allies while punishing enemies.
        • Information control:
        • Doling out information in small bits.
        • Misrepresenting information.
    3. Using Power Effectively in Management Roles:
      • Advice about the use of power can be tricky.
      • Some suggestions include:
      • When trying to leverage your expertise, do not underestimate the importance of confidence and good communication skills.
      • When you want to tap referent power, there is nothing like walking the talk.
      • Like expertise, the exercise of legitimate authority brings "gap sensitivities" with it that can cause problems.
      • When using rewards, do not overestimate their impact.
      • Use punishment as a last resort option
  3. Developing and Using Influence Tactics Effectively

    4. Managers use influence behaviors when leveraging their power sources.
    1. Selecting Influence Tactics: Options and Choice Factors:
      • The choice of tactics depends on a variety of factors including:
      • Who the target person is
      • What power sources managers have and how skilled they are in using different tactics.
      • Whether the manager is making an initial influence attempt or trying to follow up on a previous attempt.
      • Whether there is a perceived likelihood of resistance.
      • What influence norms exist in the organization.
      • General statements about certain factors:
      • To an extent, power sources drive the choice of influence tactics.
      • The use of legitimating or pressure tactics makes little sense in the absence of formal authority and control over punishments.
      • Expertise makes rational persuasion more credible.
    2. Which Tactics Work Best?
    • The question of which influence tactic or tactics work best is a difficult one.
    • Sometimes the "bundling" (combining different tactics together) may be effective.
    • Other countries often interpret and use power and influence tactics differently than the U.S. This can be a problem for organizations today.
    • Cross-cultural combinations within organizations can present complex effects on the use of power and influence.
    • Making the Most of Influence Tactics:
    • Multiple tactics can be used sequentially or in a "bundled" fashion.
    • Consultation, inspirational appeals, and rational persuasion tend to be the three most effective tactics.
    • Experts suggest that when it comes to communication, you can be perceived as a more influential player by:
    • Setting the agenda.
    • Avoiding "influence-poor" language.
    • Having good self-insight, diagnostic skills, and personal flexibility are especially critical when it comes to using influence tactics effectively in a particular situation.
    • Influence tactic success requires an accurate assessment of the context.
  4. Organizational Politics: An Inescapable Part of Life at Work

    5. Organizational politics involves the use of power and influence tactics for personal benefit.
    • Political behavior is typically not sanctioned by the company and may be unethical, abusive, or otherwise harmful to the firm's well being.
    • However, sometimes the pursuit of a selfish agenda can also promote or be consistent with the organization's goals.
    • Organizational politics is an inevitable part of corporate life.
    • Acquiring political skills is often an important part of a manager's developmental process.
    • The line separating beneficial and harmful political activities is unclear.
    • There is little doubt, in any event, that political behavior is a force to be reckoned with.
    1. Factors that Contribute to Political Behavior:
      • Several factors increase the likelihood of political behavior:
      • Personality
      • Circumstances
      • Stage of organizational development
      • Scarce resources
      • Ambiguous circumstances
      1. Stage of Organizational Development:
        • The fact that political behaviors tend to track the birth, growth, and potential decline of organizations tend to be overlooked.
      2. Competition for Scarce Resources:
        • Competition can occur around a variety of issues.
      3. Ambiguous Circumstances:
        • Political behavior is more likely when:
        • The direction being taken by the company is nebulous
        • Decision-making processes are fuzzy
        • Novel issues are being confronted
        • Management oversight is lax
    2. Common Political Tactics:
      • There does seem to be an association between political motives and the use of certain influence strategies and behaviors.
      1. Scapegoating:
        • "The best defense is a good offense" captures the essence of scapegoating.
        • This tactic can work well, at least in the short run, to insulate managers from debacles.
      2. Manipulating Information:
        • Manipulation of information can either be a defensive or offensive political tactic.
      3. Positive Image Management Tactics:
        • Self-focused tactics are used to create a more favorable self-image with important people.
        • Other-focused tactics are aimed at polishing the image of someone else. These include:
        • Praise
        • Flattery
        • Expressions of admiration
        • Liking
        • Support
        • Interest
        • Offers to do unsolicited personal favors
      4. Negative Image Management Tactics:
        • Sandbagging: deliberately making yourself look bad to others to lull opponents into a false sense of security so that they exert less effort or let down their guard.
        • Deliberately broadcasting your limitations.
        • Not working up to your potential.
        • Engaging in withdrawal behaviors.
      5. Keeping Political Behavior Under Control:
        • Steps managers can take to reign in destructive politics include:
        • Confront destructive political behavior.
        • Build an open culture that discourages political activities.
        • Develop clear and consistent expectations and procedures.
        • Role model appropriate behaviors.
      6. The Political Seasoning Process:
        • Good political skills tend to develop over time.
        • Four basic stages managers go through in the "political seasoning" process:
        • Stage 1: Early period of a manager's career.
        • Stage 2: Building on early successes by consistently performing well on important, visible assignments.
        • Stage 3: Become more recognizable and credible.
        • Stage 4: Toward the end of career - awareness of the sacrifices made.




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