TAKING SIDES: Clashing Views in Educational Psychology, Fifth Edition
UNIT 1 MEETING THE DIVERSE NEEDS OF A DIVERSE CLASSROOM
Issue 1. Are Single-Gender Classes Necessary to Ensure Equal Educational Opportunities for Boys and Girls? New! YES: Frances R. Spielhagen, from "How Tweens View Single-Sex Classes," Educational Leadership (April 2006) NO: Jo Sanders and Sarah Cotton Nelson, from "Closing Gender Gaps in Science," Educational Leadership (November 2004)
Frances R. Spielhagen, a postdoctoral research fellow at the Center for Gifted Education at the College of William and Mary, argues that single-gender classes are viewed as more conducive to learning than are coeducational classes by students, especially younger students. Jo Sanders and Sara Cotton Nelson argue that gender differences in achievement in physics, chemistry, and computer sciences are caused by inequities in classroom practices that deny young girls full participation in the activities required for success in these academic domains. They also describe a program initiated in the Dallas school system in which the classroom behavior of teachers and students in coeducational classrooms is targeted for change so as to provide more gender-equitable pedagogical experiences.
Issue 2. Should Struggling Students Be Retained? New! YES: Jon Lorence and Anthony Gary Dworkin, from "Elementary Grade Retention in Texas and Reading Achievement Among Racial Groups: 1994–2002," Review of Policy Research (September 2006) New! NO: Nancy Frey, from "Retention, Social Promotion, and Academic Redshirting," Remedial and Special Education (November/December 2005)
Jon Lorence, an associate professor of sociology, and Anthony G. Dworkin, a professor of sociology, both cofounders of the Sociology of Education Research Group at the University of Houston, argue that although the majority of educational researchers contend that making low-performing students repeat a grade is ineffective, careful analysis of primary-grades data from school districts in Texas shows persistent positive effects of retention on academic performance over time. Nancy Frey, an associate professor of literacy in the School of Teacher Education at San Diego State University, argues that the policy of retention and associated procedures such as social promotion and academic “redshirting” in which there is purposeful delayed entry into kindergarten are largely flawed with little compelling evidence to support their practice.
Issue 3. Should English Immersion Replace Bilingual Education? YES: Keith Baker, from "Structured English Immersion: Breakthrough in Teaching Limited-English," Phi Delta Kappan (November 1998) NO: Josephine Arce, from "Cultural Hegemony: The Politics of Bilingual Education," Multicultural Education (Winter 1998)
Educational consultant Keith Baker argues that empirical evidence indicates that Structured English Immersion, which provides academic instruction in English, leads to larger gains in academic achievement and English mastery than bilingual education, which provides academic instruction in the students’ native language. Josephine Arce, assistant professor of elementary education, College of Education, at San Francisco State University, argues that the anti-bilingual-education movement sweeping the country has resulted from a conservative political agenda designed to oppress racial and ethnic minorities. She asserts that the empirical evidence supports the superiority of bilingual education over Structured English Immersion.
Issue 4. Is Full Inclusion Always the Best Option for Students with Disabilities? New! YES: Michael F. Giangreco, from "Extending Inclusive Opportunities," Educational Leadership (February 2007) New! NO: James M. Kauffman, Kathleen McGee, and Michele Brigham, from "Enabling or Disabling? Observations on Changes in Special Education," Phi Delta Kappan (April 2004)
Michael F. Giangreco, who is a professor of education at the University of Vermont, argues that even students with severe disabilities are best served within the "regular" education classroom along with their typically developing peers. He also outlines strategies for achieving inclusion and shows how it creates a classroom that benefits all students, regardless of ability level. James M. Kauffman, who is a professor at the University of Virginia at Charlottesville, and Kathleen McGee and Michele Brigham, who are both special education teachers, argue that the goal of education for students with disabilities should be to increase their level of competence and independence. They conclude that full inclusion involves "excessive" accommodations that actually become barriers to achieving this goal.
Issue 5. Can Schools Close the Achievement Gap between Students from Different YES: Carol Corbett Burris and Kevin G. Welner, from "Closing the Achievement Gap by Detracking," Phi Delta Kappan (April 2005) NO: William J. Mathis, Ph.D., from "Bridging the Achievement Gap: A Bridge Too Far?," Phi Delta Kappan (April 2005)
Carol Corbett Burris and Kevin G. Welner argue that the achievement gap between white students and African American and Hispanic students is a consequence of the overrepresentation of students from ethnic and racial minorities in low ability-track classes. They argue that the watered-down curriculum and low expectations associated with low ability-track classes prevent ethnic and racial minority students from achieving the same levels of academic success as white students. William J. Mathis argues that the achievement gap between white and African American and Hispanic students has been created by discriminatory social and political pressures that pervade all facets of life. He argues that it is, therefore, unreasonable to expect to eliminate the gap through curricular or other innovations in the schools. Mathis cites school vouchers as an example of a failed attempt to use schooling as a means of undoing the achievement gap.
Issue 6. Should Schools Try to Increase Students' Self-Esteem? YES: Robert Sylwester, from "The Neurobiology of Self-Esteem and Aggression," Educational Leadership (February 1997) NO: Carol S. Dweck, from "Caution—Praise Can Be Dangerous," American Educator (Spring 1999)
Robert Sylwester, an emeritus professor of education at the University of Oregon, argues that self-esteem is rooted in brain biology and that low self-esteem can result in impulsive and violent actions. He sees schools as a particularly important mechanism for delivering the positive feedback and successes that are required for the development of high self-esteem. Carol S. Dweck, a professor in the department of psychology at Columbia University, argues that programs to boost self-esteem have not had the hoped-for positive effects on student achievement. She argues that the indiscriminate use of praise makes students passive and fearful of losing the favorable opinion of others.
Issue 7. Should Moral Education Be Part of the School Curriculum? YES: Thomas Lickona, from "Character Education: Seven Crucial Issues," Action in Teacher Edcucation (Winter 1998) NO: Alfie Kohn, from "How Not to Teach Values: A Critical Look at Character Education," Phi Delta Kappan (February 1997)
Thomas Lickona, a professor of education at the State University of New York College at Cortland, argues that U.S. schools must return to the teaching of character, or morality. He also proposes a set of core values that should be the basis of such teaching and outlines a plan for implementation. Alfie Kohn is a professional writer and lecturer who frequently addresses psychological and educational issues and controversies. Kohn questions whether current programs of moral education can have a lasting impact and, if they do, whether they have the outcome that is best for a democratic society. UNIT 2 THEORIES OF LEARNING AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE
Issue 8. Should Schools Adopt a Constructivist Approach to Education? YES: Mark Windschitl, from "The Challenges of Sustaining a Constructivist Classroom Culture," Phi Delta Kappan (June 1999 ) NO: E. D. Hirsch Jr., from "Reality's Revenge: Research and Ideology," American Educator (Fall 1996)
Mark Windschitl, a member of the faculty in the department of curriculum and instruction at the University of Washington, argues in favor of constructivism, a child-centered approach to education that is defined by student participation in hands-on activities and extended projects that are allowed to "evolve" in accordance with the students’ interests and initial beliefs. E. D. Hirsch, Jr., a professor in the School of Education at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, argues that child-centered approaches have failed and points to research demonstrating the superiority of fact-based, teacher-centered approaches.
Issue 9. Does Reinforcement Facilitate Learning? YES: Tashawna K. Duncan, Kristen M. Kemple, and Tina M. Smith, from "Reinforcement in Developmentally Appropriate Early Childhood," Childhood Education (Summer 2000) NO: Charles H. Wolfgang, from "Another View on Reinforcement in Developmentally Appropriate Early Childhood Classrooms," Childhood Education (Winter 2000/2001)
Tashawna K. Duncan, Kristen M. Kemple, and Tina M. Smith, from the School of Teaching and Learning at the University of Florida, argue that reinforcement has a long history of successful application in the classroom. They dismiss concerns that it lowers intrinsic motivation or that it is ethically equivalent to paying children to learn. They do acknowledge, however, that reinforcement must be integrated with a consideration of the developmental and unique needs of each child. Charles H. Wolfgang, a professor of early childhood education, admits that reinforcement and other techniques derived from behaviorist theory do control children’s behavior in the short term. He asserts, however, that such techniques do little to encourage internalization of the types of standards that will ultimately lead children to behave effectively and appropriately in a range of situations in the future.
Issue 10. Can Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences Transform Educational Practice? New! YES: Seana Moran, Mindy Kornhaber, and Howard Gardner, from "Orchestrating Multiple Intelligences," Educational Leadership (September 2006) NO: Perry D. Klein, from "Multiplying the Problems of Intelligence by Eight: A Critique of Gardner's Theory," Canadian Journal of Education (vol. 22, no. 2, 1997)
Seanna Moran, a graduate student at Harvard University, Mindy Kornahber, an associate professor of education at the Pennsylvania State University, and Howard Gardner, the long-time Harvard University faculty member who originally proposed the theory of multiple intelligences, argue that the theory can transform the ways in which teachers teach and students view themselves. Perry D. Klein, a member of the Faculty of Education at the University of Western Ontario, argues that although a number of diverse pedagogical practices have been inspired by Gardner’s theory, the theory is really too broad to be particularly informative about education.
Issue 11. Will a Push for Standards and Accountability Lead to More Motivated Students? YES: Lauren B. Resnick, from "From Aptitude to Effort: A New Foundation for Our Schools," Daedalus (Fall 1995) NO: Kennon M. Sheldon and Bruce J. Biddle, from "Standards, Accountability, and School Reform: Perils and Pitfalls," Teachers College Record (Fall 1998)
Lauren B. Resnick, a professor of psychology at the University of Pittsburgh, argues that setting clear achievement standards for all students, not just those who are assumed to have the highest academic aptitude, will motivate students to work harder and, thus, increase achievement by all students. Kennon M. Sheldon and Bruce J. Biddle, both members of the faculty in the department of psychology at the University of Missouri, argue that an emphasis on standards is inconsistent with the mission of schooling because it rewards (and punishes) students and teachers for achieving a narrowly defined set of outcomes.
Issue 12. Do Recent Discoveries about the Brain and Its Development Have Implications for Classroom Practice? YES: Mariale M. Hardiman, from "Connecting Brain Research with Dimensions of Learning," Educational Leadership (November 2001) New! NO: Gerald Coles, from "Danger in the Classroom: 'Brain Glitch' Research and Learning to Read," Phi Delta Kappan (January 2004)
Mariale M. Hardiman, principal of a combined elementary and middle school in Baltimore, Maryland, argues that the pedagogical techniques that are employed in her school are successful because they fit with what is known about how the human brain works. Gerald Coles, an educational psychologist who writes regularly on a range of educational issues, considers current claims about the neural bases of reading problems. He concludes that the research is often ambiguous about whether learning problems arise from differences in brain structure or function or from limitations in experience or skill, which in turn affect brain development. UNIT 3 EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND THE EVALUATION OF LEARNING
Issue 13. Is the Whole Language Approach to Reading Effective? YES: Steve Zemelman, Harvey Daniels, and Marilyn Bizar, from "Sixty Years of Reading Research—But Who's Listening?," Phi Delta Kappan (March 1999) NO: G. Reid Lyon, from "Why Reading Is Not a Natural Process," Educational Leadership (March 1998)
Steve Zemelman, Harvey Daniels, and Marilyn Bizar, faculty in the Center for City Schools at National-Louis University, argue that there is substantial empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of a whole language approach to teaching reading. G. Reid Lyon, chief of the Child Development and Behavior Branch of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), argues that becoming a skilled reader requires explicit, systematic, and direct instruction and practice.
Issue 14. Is Greater Parental Involvement at School Always Beneficial? YES: Laura Van Zandt Allen and Eleanor T. Migliore, from "Supporting Students and Parents Through a School-University Partnership," Middle School Journal (January 2005) NO: Rodney T. Ogawa, from "Organizing Parent-Teacher Relations Around the Work of Teaching," Peabody Journal of Education (vol. 73, no. 1, 1998)
Laura Van Zandt Allen and Eleanor T. Migliore point to evidence that parental involvement in their children’s schooling is associated with improvements in children’s academic performance and social-emotional development. Van Zandt Allen and Migliore also describe a program to help teachers solicit and use parental input, something the authors argue few teachers are normally prepared to do. Although Rodney T. Ogawa acknowledges that there is evidence that parental involvement has a positive impact on student outcomes, he questions the assumption that if some parental involvement is good, more must be even better. Ogawa argues, instead, that schools must build "buffers" as well as bridges between themselves and parents.
Issue 15. Should Schools Embrace Computers and Technology? YES: Marcia C. Linn and James D. Slotta, from "WISE Science," Educational Leadership (October 2000) New! NO: Lowell W. Monke, from "The Overdominance of Computers," Educational Leadership (December 2005/January 2006)
Marcia C. Linn, a professor of cognition and development, and James D. Slotta, director of the Web-based Integrated Science Environment (WISE) project library at the University of California, Berkeley, present an overview of the WISE project, which is designed to teach science and technological literacy through Web-based activities. They contend that this project will make teachers more effective and increase their flexibility in the classroom. Lowell W. Monke, an assistant professor at Wittenberg University, argues that schools have been too uncritical in their adoption of computers and related technologies. Moreover, he suggests that younger students might not be “ready” for such technology and that the premature introduction of the technology might interfere with their ability to acquire important academic, social, and ethical foundations.
Issue 16. Should Schools Decrease Class Size to Improve Student Outcomes? New! YES: Bruce J. Biddle and David C. Berliner, from "Small Class Size and Its Effects," Educational Leadership (February 2002) NO: Kirk A. Johnson, from "The Downside to Small Class Policies," Educational Leadership (February 2002)
Bruce J. Biddle, a professor emeritus of psychology and sociology at the University of Missouri, Columbia and David C. Berliner, a regent’s professor of psychology in education at Arizona State University, argue that the gains from smaller classes in the primary grades benefit all types of students, and, importantly, that the gains are greatest for students traditionally disadvantaged in educational access and opportunity. Kirk A. Johnson, a senior policy analyst in the Center for Data Analysis, Heritage Foundation, argues that although the notion of reducing class size is popular among politicians, it is a costly initiative. The research suggests that in terms of raising achievement, reducing class size does not guarantee success.
Issue 17. Can a Zero-Tolerance Policy Lead to Safe Schools? YES: Albert Shanker, from "Restoring the Connection Between Behavior and Consequences," Vital Speeches of the Day (May 15,1995) New! NO: Alfie Kohn, from "Safety from Inside Out: Rethinking Traditional Approaches," Educational Horizons (Fall 2004)
The late Albert Shanker, long-time president of the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), advocates a policy of zero tolerance for violence and other disruptive behavior in school. He argues that such a policy is necessary because disruptive and violent behavior denies equal access to educational opportunities for the nonoffending students in a class or school. Alfie Kohn, a writer and commentator on issues related to children, parenting, and schools, argues that not only are zero-tolerance polices ineffective, they are also harmful—creating fear rather than a sense of security and trust and replacing programs that are effective in treating the root causes of youth violence.
Issue 18. Should U.S. Schools Be Evaluated Against Schools in Other Countries? YES: Richard M. Haynes and Donald M. Chalker, from "World-Class Schools," The American School Board Journal (May 1997) NO: Ernest G. Noack, from "Comparing U.S. and German Education: Like Apples and Sauerkraut," Phi Delta Kappan (June 1999)
Richard M. Haynes and Donald M. Chalker, professors of administration, curriculum, and instruction, summarize the results of their analysis of the educational systems in 10 countries, including the United States and several countries considered by many to have successful, or "world-class," schools. They identify eight dimensions of difference between U.S. and world-class educational systems—dimensions that they feel explain the relative lack of success of U.S. schooling. Ernest G. Noack, a faculty member in education, argues that comparisons between the U.S. educational system and the educational systems of other countries are not useful because schooling serves a role in the United States that is different from that in other countries.
