TAKING SIDES: Clashing Views in Special Education, Fourth Edition
Unit 1 Special Education and Society
Issue 1. Has the ADA Accomplished Its Goals? YES: John Hockenberry, from “Yes, You Can,” Parade Magazine (July 24, 2005) NO: Lynda A. Price, Paul J. Gerber, and Robert Mulligan, from “Adults with Learning Disabilities and the Underutilization of the Americans with Disabilities Act,” Remedial and Special Education (November/December 2007)
John Hockenberry, an award-winning television commentator, radio host, and a foreign correspondent, who happens to use a wheelchair, celebrates the increased access brought about by implementation of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Lynda Price, Paul Gerber (university faculty members and researchers), and Robert Mulligan (a district special education administrator) contend that the opportunities for ADA-mandated access are underused by individuals with learning disabilities.
Issue 2. Does IDEA 2004 Contain Substantial Changes? YES: H. Rutherford Turnbull III, from “Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Reauthorization: Accountability and Personal Responsibility,” Remedial and Special Education (November/December 2005) NO: Tom E. C. Smith, from “IDEA 2004: Another Round in the Reauthorization Process,” Remedial and Special Education (November/December 2005)
H. Rutherford Turnbull III, co-founder and co-director of the Beach Center on Disability at the University of Kansas, sees major changes in IDEA 2004. In line with the Bush administration’s priorities, Turnbull identifies a shift toward requiring parents and students to take more responsibility for their own behavior and for relationships with schools. Tom E. C. Smith, professor at the University of Arkansas, focuses his research on disability law and inclusion. Reflecting on IDEA 2004, Smith believes that although some changes seem significant, they will make little difference in the daily practice of special education teachers.
Issue 3. Is Eliminating Minority Overrepresentation Beyond the Scope of Public Schools? YES: M. Suzanne Donovan and Christopher T. Cross, from “The Committee on Minority Representation in Special Education,” Minority Students in Special and Gifted Education (National Academy Press, 2002) NO: Daniel J. Losen and Gary Orfield, from Racial Inequity in Special Education (Harvard Education Press, 2002)
M. Suzanne Donovan and Christopher Cross, researchers representing the findings of a National Research Council (NRC) study on minority students in special and gifted education, believe overrepresentation issues are complex and not easily resolvable. While teachers can make a difference, environmental factors and poverty have a large impact and require interventions beyond schools. Daniel J. Losen and Gary Orfield, both policy experts, present the results of research commissioned by the Civil Rights Project (CRP) of Harvard University. While agreeing with some of the NRC recommendations, these findings suggest that patterns will change with stricter enforcement of federal and state regulations.
Issue 4. Can Whole School Reform Reduce Discipline Problems? YES: Howard S. Adelman and Linda Taylor, from “Rethinking How Schools Address Student Misbehavior and Disengagement,” Addressing Barriers to Learning (Spring 2008) NO: William C. Frick and Susan C. Faircloth, from “Acting in the Collective and Individual ‘Best Interest of Students:’ When Ethical Imperatives Clash with Administrative Demands,” Journal of Special Education Leadership (March 2007)
Howard S. Adelman and Linda Taylor, co-directors of the UCLA School Mental Health Project, based in the Center for Mental Health in Schools, believe that many discipline problems could be eliminated by whole school initiatives that create and sustain an environment that addresses positive social and emotional development as well as academics. William C. Frick and Susan C. Faircloth, assistant professors at the University of Oklahoma and The Pennsylvania State University, respectively, present dilemmas faced by principals torn between balancing the needs of one particular student who exhibits disruptive behavior with those of the rest of the student body, whose learning is affected by the single student’s actions.
Issue 5. Does School Choice Open Doors for Students with Disabilities? YES: Marcus A. Winters and Jay P. Greene, from “Vouchers and Special Education; Vouchers for Special-Ed Students: The Politics of Special-Ed Vouchers,” Washington Times (April 28 and 30, May 1, 2008) NO: Barbara Miner, from “Vouchers: Special Ed Students Need Not Apply,” Rethinking Schools Online (vol. 18, no. 2, 2003)
Marcus A. Winters and Jay P. Greene are both senior fellows of the Manhattan Institute; Jay Greene is also a department head at the University of Arkansas. Winters and Greene found that Florida’s McKay voucher program for special education students has improved education for those who remain in public schools. Barbara Miner, a freelance writer and former managing editor of Rethinking Schools, shares frustrating experiences with the pioneering Milwaukee voucher system. Her interviewees claim that exclusionary policies and practices limit access for students with disabilities who seek entry into voucher schools.
Issue 6. Do Funding Systems Create a Perverse Incentive to Place Students in Special Education? YES: Jay P. Greene and Greg Forster, from Civic Report No. 32: Effects of Funding Incentives on Special Education Enrollment (Center for Civic Innovation at the Manhattan Institute, December 2002) NO: Kanya Mahitivanichcha and Thomas Parrish, from “Do Non-Census Funding Systems Encourage Special Education Identification? Reconsidering Greene and Forster,” Journal of Special Education Leadership (April 2005)
Jay P. Greene, senior fellow, and Greg Forster, senior research associate, both with The Manhattan Institute for Policy Research, assert that the number of students identified as disabled is increasing at an excessive rate, especially in states where funding systems provide a “perverse incentive” in favor of placement. Kanya Mahitivanichcha, research analyst, and Tom Parrish, managing director for the Education and Human Development Program, both at the American Institutes for Research, maintain that funding formulas are only one reason behind increases in special education placement.
Unit 2 Access and Accountability
Issue 7. Is Response to Intervention (RTI) Ready for Implementation? YES: Rachel Brown-Chidsey and Mark W. Steege, from Response to Intervention: Principles and Strategies for Effective Practice (The Guilford Press, 2005) NO: Douglas Fuchs and Donald D. Deshler, from “What We Need to Know About Responsiveness to Intervention (and Shouldn’t Be Afraid to Ask),” Learning Disabilities Research & Practice (May 2007)
Rachel Brown-Chidsey and Mark Steege, faculty members at the University of Southern Maine, who have conducted extensive research in the area of student assessment, describe Response to Intervention (RTI) as a systematic way for educators to help all children experience appropriate educational practices. Douglas Fuchs and Donald D. Deshler, professors at Vanderbilt University and the University of Kansas, respectively, prolific scholars, and co-directors of the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities, urge educators to identify and explore unresolved aspects of RTI before wholesale implementation.
Issue 8. Does NCLB Leave Some Students Behind? YES: Jennifer Booher-Jennings, from “Rationing Education in an Era of Accountability,” Phi Delta Kappan (June 2006) NO: U.S. Department of Education, from “Working Together for Students with Disabilities: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB),” http://www.ed.gov/admins/lead/speced/toolkit/index.html (December 2005)
Jennifer Booher-Jennings, a doctoral candidate at Columbia University, finds the accountability pressures of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) are leading some administrators to advise teachers to focus only on those children who will improve their school’s scores; other students don’t count much. The U.S. Department of Education FAQ Sheet on IDEA and NCLB advises readers that the link between these two statutes is sound, emphasizing how they work together to ensure that every student’s performance and needs receive appropriate attention.
Issue 9. Will NCLB Requirements Produce Highly Qualified Special Education Teachers? YES: Rod Paige, from “Remarks at the Education Department’s First Annual Teacher Quality Evaluation Conference” (June 11, 2002) NO: James McLeskey and Dorene D. Ross, from “The Politics of Teacher Education in the New Millennium: Implications for Special Education Teacher Educators,” Teacher Education and Special Education (Fall 2004)
Rod Paige, then-Secretary of the U.S. Department of Education, and former Houston, Texas superintendent, believes the promise of No Child Left Behind can be realized by mandating that every teacher be highly qualified, by increasing their focus in the content areas they teach and decreasing time spent on pedagogical skills. James McLeskey and Dorene Ross, teacher education faculty at the University of Florida, present competing views of what constitutes “highly qualified” special education teachers, one based on deregulation and one based on professionalization; they encourage ongoing consideration to determine the value and impact of each.
Issue 10. Can Scientifically Based Research Guide Instructional Practice? YES: Samuel L. Odom, Ellen Brantlinger, Russell Gersten, Robert H. Horner, Bruce Thompson, and Karen R. Harris, from “Research in Special Education: Scientific Methods and Evidence-Based Practices,” Exceptional Children (Winter 2005) NO: Frederick J. Brigham, William E. Gustashaw III, Andrew L. Wiley, and Michele St. Peter Brigham, from “Research in the Wake of the No Child Left Behind Act: Why the Controversies Will Continue and Some Suggestions for Controversial Research,” Behavioral Disorders (May 2004)
Samuel L. Odom, Ellen Brantlinger, Russell Gersten, Robert H. Horner, Bruce Thompson, and Karen R. Harris, all college faculty members and educational researchers, begin their article with definitive support for research-based methodology. They herald proposals for quality indicators, to establish rigor in an array of research methods that can identify effective educational practices. Frederick J. Brigham, associate professor at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville; William E. Gustashaw III and Andrew L. Wiley, both doctoral candidates at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville; and Michele St. Peter Brigham, a special education practitioner, believe that disagreement, mistrust, and the shifting general education environment preclude the usefulness of scientifically based research to guide daily instruction.
Issue 11. Should Students with Cognitive Disabilities Be Expected to Demonstrate Academic Proficiency? YES: Kevin S. McGrew and Jeffrey Evans, from Expectations for Students with Cognitive Disabilities: Is the Cup Half Empty or Half Full? Can the Cup Flow Over? (National Center on Educational Outcomes, December 2004) NO: James M. Kauffman, from Education Deform: Bright People Sometimes Say Stupid Things About Education (The Scarecrow Press, 2002)
Kevin S. McGrew, educational researcher and director of the Institute for Applied Psychometrics (IAP), and Jeffrey Evans, consultant and educational researcher for IAP, are wary that stereotypes of individuals with cognitive disabilities are used to form limited (and limiting) expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies. James M. Kauffman, professor emeritus of education at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, and special education philosopher-researcher, believes that educators and parents must acknowledge that some students with cognitive disabilities cannot reach high academic standards and are best served by programs that develop other skills.
Issue 12. Have Schools Gone Too Far in Using Accommodations? YES: James M. Kauffman, Kathleen McGee, and Michele Brigham, from “Enabling or Disabling? Observations on Changes in Special Education,” Phi Delta Kappan (April 2004) NO: MaryAnn Byrnes, from “Accommodations for Students with Disabilities: Removing Barriers to Learning,” National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin (February 2000)
James M. Kauffman, a faculty member at the University of Virginia, along with Kathleen McGee and Michele Brigham, both special education teachers, maintain that special education has pursued its goal of normalization to an extreme. The emphasis has shifted from increasing competence to perpetuating disabilities through the unwise use of accommodations. MaryAnn Byrnes, a University of Massachusetts–Boston faculty member, former special education administrator, and editor of this Taking Sides, argues that relevant accommodations are necessary to ensure that people with disabilities have a fair chance to demonstrate what they know and can do.
Issue 13. Can One Model of Special Education Serve All Students? YES: Wayne Sailor and Blair Roger, from “Rethinking Inclusion: Schoolwide Applications,” Phi Delta Kappan (March 2005) NO: Naomi Zigmond, from “Where Should Students with Disabilities Receive Special Education Services? Is One Place Better than Another?” The Journal of Special Education (vol. 37, no. 3, 2003)
Wayne Sailor, professor of education and associate director of the Beach Center on Disability at the University of Kansas–Lawrence, and Blair Roger, an educational consultant based in Oakland, California, believe that a school-based model of support services for all students would successfully increase inclusionary practices. Naomi Zigmond, professor of education at the University of Pittsburgh, maintains that promoting one model of services over another is the wrong approach and advocates that educators and researchers need to focus attention on individual students.
Issue 14. Is Full Inclusion the Least Restrictive Environment? YES: Rosalind Vargo and Joe Vargo, from “Voice of Inclusion: From My Friend Ro Vargo,” in Richard A. Villa and Jacqueline S. Thousand, eds., Creating an Inclusive School, 2d ed. (Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2005) NO: Amy Dockser Marcus, from “Eli’s Choice,” The Wall Street Journal (December 31, 2005)
Rosalind and Joe Vargo, parents of Ro, use their voices to tell a powerful story of their daughter’s success in fully inclusive educational programs, from kindergarten through college. Amy Dockser Marcus, staff reporter at The Wall Street Journal, records the voices of Eli’s parents and teachers as they react to his message to leave a fully inclusive program in favor of a separate special education class.
Unit 3 Exceptionalities
Issue 15. Can Brain Scans Unravel the Mystery of Learning Disabilities? YES: Sally E. Shaywitz and Bennett A. Shaywitz, from “Reading Disability and the Brain,” Educational Leadership (March 2004) NO: Gerald Coles, from “Danger in the Classroom: ‘Brain Glitch’ Research and Learning to Read,” Phi Delta Kappa (January 2004)
Sally and Bennett Shaywitz, codirectors of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development—Yale Center for the Study of Learning and Attention, and Yale University professors, summarize their recent research findings suggesting that advances in medicine, together with reading research, can virtually eliminate reading disabilities. Gerald Coles, an educational psychologist and former member of the Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, contests the claim that neurological procedures can identify reading disabilities and identify the methods to help children read.
Issue 16. Can RTI Reduce the Numbers of Children Identified with Specific Learning Disability (SLD)? YES: Lynn S. Fuchs, from NRCLD Update on Responsiveness to Intervention: Research to Practice (National Research Center on Learning Disabilities, 2007) NO: Cathy G. Litty and J. Amos Hatch, from “Hurry Up and Wait: Rethinking Special Education Identification in Kindergarten,” Early Childhood Education Journal (February 2006)
Lynn S. Fuchs, a prolific scholar in the area of learning disabilities and one of several researchers in the National Research Center for Learning Disabilities, explains how Research to Intervention (RTI) strategies can separate a struggling learner from one with specific learning disability (SLD). Cathy Litty (Western Carolina University) and J. Amos Hatch (University of Tennessee) discuss the increasing academic pressures for kindergarten children; they believe special education services should be provided as soon as possible to students who will eventually be found eligible.
Issue 17. Is Attention Deficit (Hyperactivity) Disorder Overdiagnosed? YES: Arthur Allen, from “The Trouble with ADHD,” The Washington Post (March 18, 2001) NO: Russell A. Barkley, from Taking Charge of ADHD: The Complete, Authoritative Guide for Parents, 2nd ed. (The Guilford Press, 2000)
Arthur Allen, reporter for The Washington Post, believes attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) exists, but thinks too many children are given this diagnosis, masking other conditions (or simply normal behavior), and resulting in the prescription of drugs which do more harm than good. Dr. Russell Barkley, Director of Psychology and a professor at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center, addresses several current beliefs about ADHD and maintains it is, in fact, underdiagnosed and undertreated in today’s children.
Issue 18. Are There Scientifically Effective Treatments for Autism? YES: James B. Adams, Stephen M. Edelson, Temple Grandin, and Bernard Rimland, from “Advice for Parents of Young Autistic Children,” Autism Research Institute, http://www.autism.org (Spring 2004) NO: Committee on Educational Interventions for Children with Autism, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council, from Educating Children with Autism (National Academy Press, 2001)
James B. Adams (Arizona State University), Stephen Edelson (Center for the Study of Autism), Temple Grandin (Colorado State University) and Bernard Rimland (Director of the Autism Research Institute) recommend to parents of young children with autism an array of effective treatment options, many of them biomedical-based. The Committee on Educational Interventions, chaired by Catherine Lord, director of the University of Michigan’s Autism and Communication Disorders Center, summarizing their examination of research studies of educational treatments for children with autism, found little consistent evidence to support the efficacy claims made by their proponents.
Issue 19. Is Mental Health Screening an Unwarranted Intrusion? YES: Nathaniel S. Lehrman, from “The Dangers of Mental Health Screening,” Journal of American Physicians and Surgeons (Fall 2006) NO: Mark D. Weist, Marcia Rubin, Elizabeth Moore, Steven Adelsheim, and Gordon Wrobel, from “Mental Health Screening in Schools,” Journal of School Health (February 2007)
Nathaniel Lehrman, clinical director (retired) of the Kingsboro (NY) Psychiatric Center warns that new mental health screening requirements, heralded as a way to increase the health of the nation, will intrude on basic freedoms, lead to inappropriate labels, and increase revenue for pharmaceutical companies. Mark Weist, Marcia Rubin, Elizabeth Moore, Steven Adelshiem, and Gordon Wrobel, consultants and researchers in mental health, see this screening as a way to identify those who need early intervention in order to prevent the development of debilitating mental illnesses.
Issue 20. Do Gifted and Talented Students Need Special Schools? YES: John Cloud, from “Failing Our Geniuses,” Time Magazine (August 27, 2007) NO: Susan Winebrenner and Dina Brulles, from The Cluster Grouping Handbook (Free Spirit Publishing, 2008)
John Cloud, a staff writer for Time Magazine since 1997, profiles a number of extraordinarily gifted young people challenged for the first time in a specialized school that pushes them to reach their potential in a way that public schools could not. Susan Winebrenner and Dina Brulles work with educators to design and deliver cluster-based programs that address the needs of the gifted within their neighborhood school and provide options for a range of students to reach their potential.
