This chapter examined various aspects of a growing field of negotiation that explores the complexities of international and cross-cultural negotiation. We began the chapter with a discussion of the art and science of negotiation. Next we considered some of the factors that make international negotiations different. Phatak and Habib (1996) suggest that both the environmental and the immediate context have important effects on international negotiations. We then discussed Salacuse's (1988) description of the environmental factors that influence international negotiations: (1) political and legal pluralism, (2) international economics, (3) foreign governments and bureaucracies, (4) instability, (5) ideology, and (6) culture. We added one more environmental factor—external stakeholders—from Phatak and Habib (1996). Phatak and Habib's five immediate context factors were discussed next: (1) relative bargaining power, (2) levels of conflict, (3) relationship between negotiators, (4) desired outcomes, and (5) immediate stakeholders. Each of these environmental and immediate context factors acts to make international negotiations more difficult, and effective international negotiators need to understand how to manage them.

Next, we turned to a discussion of how to conceptualize culture. Robert Janosik (1987) suggests that researchers and practitioners of negotiation use culture in at least four different ways: (1) culture as learned behavior, (2) culture as shared values, (3) culture as dialectics, and (4) culture in context. We then examined two perspectives on how cultural differences can influence negotiations. From the managerial perspective, we discussed 10 ways that culture can influence negotiation: (1) the definition of negotiation, (2) the negotiation opportunity, (3) the selection of negotiators, (4) protocol, (5) communication, (6) time sensitivity, (7) risk propensity, (8) groups versus individuals, (9) the nature of agreements, and (10) emotionalism. From the research perspective, we examined the effect of culture on negotiation outcomes, negotiation process and information exchange, negotiator cognition, negotiator ethics, and conflict resolution.

The chapter concluded with a discussion of how to manage cultural differences in negotiation. Weiss presents eight different culturally responsive strategies that negotiators can use with a negotiator from a different culture. Some of these strategies may be used individually, whereas others are used jointly with the other negotiator. Weiss indicates that one critical aspect of choosing the correct strategy for a given negotiation is the degree of familiarity (low, moderate, or high) that a negotiator has with the other culture. However, even those with high familiarity with another culture are faced with a daunting task if they want to modify their strategy completely when they deal with the other culture.