The process of negotiation raises frequent and critical ethical issues. In this chapter, we have discussed factors that negotiators consider when they decide whether particular tactics are deceptive and unethical. Although a lot of writing on negotiation is strongly normative about ethical dos and don'ts, we prefer an analytical approach that focuses on how negotiators actually make decisions about when and where to use specific tactics. Accordingly, we approached the study of ethically ambiguous tactics from a decision-making framework, examining the ethical overtones of the choices that negotiators make.

We began by drawing on a set of hypothetical scenarios to discuss how ethical questions are inherent in the process of negotiation. We then presented four fundamental approaches to ethical reasoning and showed how each might be used to make decisions about what is ethically appropriate in negotiations. We proposed that a negotiator's decision to use ethically ambiguous (or flatly unethical) tactics typically grows out of a desire to increase one's negotiating power by manipulating the landscape of (presumably accurate) information in the negotiation. We discussed the different forms that ethically ambiguous tactics take, and we reviewed relevant research about the use of those tactics.

Working from a simple model of ethical decision making, we analyzed the motives for and consequences of engaging in unethical negotiation behavior. We then expanded the model to identify individual differences and contextual factors that influence the likelihood that negotiators will use such tactics. Finally, we addressed how negotiators can respond to another party that may be using tactics of deception or subterfuge.

In closing, we suggest that negotiators who are considering the use of deceptive tactics should ask themselves the following questions:

• Will they really enhance my power and help me achieve my objective?
• How will the use of these tactics affect the quality of my relationship with the other party in the future?
• How will the use of these tactics affect my personal and professional reputation as a negotiator?

Negotiators frequently overlook the fact that, although unethical or expedient tactics may get them what they want in the short run, these same tactics typically lead to tarnished reputations and diminished effectiveness in the long run.