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After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Describe the characteristics of interpersonal influence and how interpersonal influence relates to persuasion.
2. Explain the importance of interpersonal influence for consumer preferences and choices.
3. Recognize how particular social contexts shape consumers' preferences and choices and how the nature of interpersonal influence varies across cultures.
4. Identify different types of interpersonal influence and give examples of how they are used in marketing strategies.
5. Recognize commonly used influence tactics and how and why they work and give marketing examples.
6. Discuss the importance of reference groups to individuals' perspectives, attitudes, and behaviors and recognize the characteristics of reference groups that help to explain different levels of influence.
7. Identify how different types of product choices and other characteristics of individuals and situations affect reliance on interpersonal influence.

• We provide a description of the tools and nature of interpersonal influence in this chapter. By interpersonal influence we mean altered thinking or behavior as a result of others' accidental, expressive or rhetorical communications. Bycontrast with persuasion, which is a conscious intent to thinking or behavior, influence may be conscious but may also occur accidentally. We are often totally unintentional in our effect on others. Even when we do not intend for them to, most of our actions and words stimulate some meaning in the minds of other people. Sometimes just expressing our own emotional enthusiasm for a movie we saw or a book we read, a listener, even a stranger, will decide to see the movie or read the book. In this case the effect of an expressive communication is influence.
• Compared to accidental or expressive types of communication, rhetorical communication is goal-directed. Rhetorical communication assumes that the individual is trying to achieve a goal by stimulating a specific meaning in another person's mind. Obviously, rhetorical communication can take an expressive form. We may use emotions to stimulate a specific meaning in the mind of another person. For example, Disney World coaches prospective employees on how to look like they are having fun, and McDonald's stresses the importance of displaying enthusiasm and a sense of humor. Of course, in every communication, it's important to remember that the meaning stimulated may be other than the meaning intended. For example, when McDonald's opened a fast-food outlet in Moscow, management trained staff members to conform to Western norms of good service. This included smiling at customers. However, this particular norm did not exist in the former Soviet Union, and some patrons concluded that staff members were mocking them.

• Over the years, a wide variety of beliefs about personal and social influence in many different spheres of life have accumulated. In forming our own beliefs about influence processes we rely on many sources of information. For example, we may rely on "cultural truisms" that reflect our own cultural background. Stereotypes like "you cannot reason with women because they are so flighty and emotional" would be one possible "cultural truism" about influence strategies (one that we sincerely hope is changing). We also rely on observation, feedback from others about our own behavior, the moral values and standards that have been instilled in us by our family and by society's instructions, our specific training or education, and of what we see and hear in the mass media. We might also look to history, religion, literature, law and the behavioral sciences for rich and vivid ideas about the dynamics of social and personal influence.
• Three behavioral sciences that have obvious and direct relevance to influence and persuasion processes are anthropology, sociology, and psychology. An anthropologist interested in influence and persuasion would investigate various cultural and cross-cultural dimensions. For example, an anthropologist might study certain attitudes and values widely shared in a given culture that affect the willingness of members of that culture to engage in certain behaviors. The sociologist interested in influence and persuasion would focus on processes existing in society, in institutions, and within groups. For example, a sociologist might study how our family, friends, classmates and work associates shape our beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. Finally, the psychologist interested in influence and persuasion would focus on the individual human being. For example, a sociologist might study how family, friends, classmates, and work associates shape people's beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. For example, a psychologist might study how various influence strategies affect an individual's feelings of esteem, control, or safety.
• Paradoxically, one of the reasons we are not more attuned to others' influence is our tendency to assume a "not me" orientation, or an illusion of personal invulnerability. A person may say of someone else "they are swayedby opinions, but not me," or "she goes along with the group, but not me." Not only is this orientation illusory but it is dangerous as well because it acts as a barrier to more effective personal control over our own responses to persuasion. It is through communication with others that we develop, cultivate, share, expand, and reshape our ideas and behaviors. Rarely do we develop an idea completely on our own.
• Interpersonal influence touches on countless arenas of everyday life. It is one of the most potent factors affecting human behavior. Interpersonal influence has systematic, observable and often surprising effects, but is also often intangible and illusive. Several points for the above discussion are worth emphasizing: (1) interpersonal influence can be either intentional or accidental, verbal, or nonverbal; (2) interpersonal influence is pervasive; (3) knowledge about influence processes derives from many sources, including our own observations and experiences; (4) people are all personally vulnerable to influence processes; (5) people are influenced by others, at least in part, because to be influenced is adaptive-it makes our lives more efficient, more comfortable, easier, and more successful.

• To emphasize the social context of personal consumption behavior is really no different than to say that the meanings of the clothing we wear, the food we eat, the music we listen to, our furniture, our health beliefs, the totality of our consumption universe is cultural. We would like to think of ourselves as making our own consumption choices, but, in truth, our decisions are very much shaped by the particular social context in which we find ourselves.
• Research in the U.S. has consistently demonstrated that interpersonal sources have a strong impact on consumer preferences and choices. For example, one study indicated that up to 40% of a retailer's clientele was attracted by the recommendations of friends. In purchases of major durables, over ninety 90% of respondents reported they would be likely to use an interpersonal source in the product purchase. The study suggests that a significant percent of respondents (about 20%) would seek out an unknown individual (a stranger or an acquaintance of an acquaintance) for information and advice. A number of studies suggest that buyers name interpersonal sources more frequently than any other source in describing their external search efforts.
• The power of word-of-mouth communication to motivate attitudes and behaviors is well known. Estimates on the power of negative word-of-mouth are especially compelling suggesting that when consumers are dissatisfied almost sixty percent tell at least one friend or acquaintance. In part, word-of -mouth information has so much impact because it is salient and vivid. Vivid information is easier to remember and thus, has greater impact.
• It's not just that word-of-mouth is vivid, but also that a recommendation from someone who knows something about you is often more useful than what an expert or critics has to say.
• Many times interpersonal influence is invited, but interpersonal influence also operates at more subtle levels. One study of how people select consumer non-durables such as laundry detergent confirmed that many consumers simply "buy the same detergent my mother used."
• A useful summary point in considering the social context of personal consumption is that we tend to define our social context locally rather than globally. Face-to-face interaction tends to intensify social comparison and influence. We rarely bother to seriously compare ourselves to others with whom we share little in contact, interests, culture or geography. In fact, a powerful influence tool is to isolate an individual from the usual sources of support relied upon for social rewards, feedback and identity, and provide an alternative local social context. Religious sects often employ this local social isolation as a tool of persuasion.
• Of course, as we have talked about in earlier chapters, local context may have a very global flavor. For example, the phrase EuroKids was coined by the Pan-European advertising group Alto which found that increasingly, youths under 25 from Lisbon to Berlin and Stockholm to Athens have more in common with each other than with older people in their own countries. They are bound not only by shared tastes in fashion, music and food, but also by lifestyle, attitudes and values.
• Although interpersonal influence has a dramatic impact on consumption choices in the U.S. and many other countries, there are practical limits to personal influence. For example, a study in the early 1990's of Hungarian women's purchase of personal care and cosmetic products found little evidence of interpersonal influence despite the presence of many conditions that usually foster reliance on others. Possible reasons include a lack of interpersonal trust fostered by communism and the lack of consumers with high levels of product knowledge and experience. A replication of this study in the late 1990's revealed higher levels of interpersonal influence.

1. Three Forms of Influence
• The tools of influence are numerous, but we can group the nature of influence into three categories: (1) normative (utilitarian) influence, (2) value-expressive (identification) influence and (3) informational influence. In practice it is very difficult to distinguish which form of influence is occurring and very often more than one of these forms of influence comes into play in any given situation. The Chinese concept of guanxi, or connections, is a major component of Chinese business relationships, and connotes a form of influence that combines all three tools.
1. Normative Influence
• Normative (utilitarian) influence occurs when an individual fulfills others' expectations to gain a direct reward or to avoid a sanction.
• For example, the ad for a Wharton post-MBA program, shown below, is targeted at executives, admonishing them to "ramp up or be run over . . . join us or be left behind."

A Utilitarian Appeal (50.0K)

• A number of marketing studies over the years have demonstrated that pressures to conform to norms impact buying decisions. This is especially true when the product is conspicuous and distinct in its purchase and use, when the perceived rewards and sanctions controlled by others' are strong motivations, and when the product is viewed as relevant to obtaining rewards or avoiding sanctions. Personal care items are often promoted to help us avoid others' rejection or embarrassment.
• The general theory states that groups in a favored social position seek out new products as a means of establishing and communicating social differentiation.
• Others imitate these consumption patterns to affiliate themselves with the favored group and enhance their social position. As imitation threatens the integrity of the differentiating symbols, the favored group maintains its social distance by abandoning that consumption pattern and again innovating. The process of imitation and differentiation results in an ongoing cycle of change.
• In the past few decades apparel designers have invested heavily in "coolhunting."Coolhunting involves heading for the street, the "happening" streets, collecting observations and comments from the cool people, and making predictions on that basis.
2. Value Expressive Influence
• Value-expressive (identification) influence occurs when individuals use others' norms, values, and behaviors as a guide for their ownattitudes, values, and behaviors. Implicit in value-expressive influence is the desire for psychological association or social affiliation with others. One desired outcome may be enhanced image in the eyes of others. However, value expressive influence operates because of a desire to be like someone we respect and admire, even if attitude, value, or behavior is relatively inconspicuous or even private.
• Identification with a valued other enhances self-esteem and self-concept. Sales of gear that features the colors, logos, and numbers of sports teams and stars (a multi-billion dollar industry) is a good example of value-expressive influence at work.
• Value-expressive influence can be an important and positive motivator of personal change and can help individuals transcend the particular features of their local social context.
• A study of children from disadvantaged backgrounds who, as adults, substantially advanced their social and economic standing indicated that the presence of a significant role model was the biggest distinguishing difference between these children and their counterparts who remained in disadvantaged settings. Mentorship becomes a conduit for values and beliefs, as suggested by Consumer Chronicles 15.1.

Networking Among Young African Americans (50.0K)

• Value-expressive influence can also be critical in the successful diffusion of a new product.
• Of course, for the value-expressive influence to operate in a positive way, it's important that we choose role models well.
3. Informational Social Influence
• Informational social influence occurs when an individual uses the values, norms, and behaviors of others as credible and needed evidence about reality. Marketing illustrations of informational social influences abound. When it is difficult for us to assess product or brand characteristics by observations, when the process of purchase or consumption is frightening we rely on others as guides to our own attitudes, values and behaviors. One consumer behavior researcher provides a compelling description of the influence of a shopping companion or purchase pal, in the context of a tattoo service, indicating how the companion reduces purchase risk, provides social support for the decision, commiserates about the process, and acts as a social evaluator representing the opinions of others. Many other researchers have documented the frequency and extensiveness of use of a purchase pal in making consumption choices. One U.S. study reported that 46% of all respondents identified themselves as being an opinion leader or expert in some self-selected product category. Many marketing techniques rely on informational influence. Social proof is used to let others know that people similar to themselves recognize an offer as a good deal and have decided to make a purchase.
4. Relationships Among Types of Influence
• In many, if not most, purchase and consumption circumstances the influence of friends and acquaintances is not easily separated into normative, value-expressive and informational forms of influence. For example, research shows a considerable amount of conformity among sorority sisters in personal products such as shampoo, cosmetics, deodorants, etc. What form of influence is operating? Well, perhaps there are social rewards and sanctions for certain brands of cosmetics and shampoo (Normative Influence).
• Anecdotal evidence from the University of Colorado sorority members supports the idea that cosmetics such as Clinque, Lancome or Estee Lauder are more socially acceptable than Maybelline or Avon. In addition, of course, younger sisters show up on campus and hope to identify with their senior sisters who really seem to have their act together (Value-Expressive Influence).

• In this section we outline some common tools for influencing others, talk about how these tools work, and give some marketing example.

1. Reciprocity
• One of the most widespread practices for human interaction is the norm of reciprocity: that people should try to repay what another person or group has provided them. This differs in important ways from an economic exchange. The most crucial distinction is that it involves unspecified obligations. For example, if a person gives a dinner party, she can expect her guest to reciprocate, but she can hardly bargain with them about the kind of party to which they should invite her. Many social scientists report that the reciprocity rule is pervasive within human societies and it permeates exchanges of every kind. Many societies' complex rules for reciprocity perpetuate constant indebtedness between members of the culture.
• Relations of reciprocity can create and maintain significant social bonds. Consumer Chronicles 15.3 portrays how Mr. Dang does business in China. Interestingly, the norm of reciprocity applies not only in communications between people, but between people and computers. For example, a series of experiments showed that when a computer initiates a request for information by first divulging some personal information, the subject provides more personal information than if the computer simply asks for information. This may seem strange, but just shows how important reciprocity is as a social norm for interaction.

The Rule of Reciprocity in Mr. Dangs Factory (50.0K)

• There are many studies on the impact of reciprocity on compliance. In one experiment, researchers show that twice as many raffle tickets were sold when the request for a purchase was proceeded by doing a small, unsolicited favor for the potential customer (offering someone a Coke).
• A slight variation on the reciprocity rule also plays an interesting role in many negotiation processes. This technique is commonly used in soliciting donations. The caller first asks for a rather large donation, and upon refusal, requests a much smaller amount. Some writers refer to this technique as door in the face because it involves following up a large request with a much smaller request. The dramatic reduction between requests is intended to create the perception that the requester is making a concession. The approach plays on the desire to reciprocate a concession.
2. Commitment and Consistency
• The influence tools of commitment and consistency are related more generally to attribution theory which suggests that we try to explain causes to events-we want to try to understand why things happen. Self-perception theory, an aspect of attribution theory, proposes that attitudes develop as consumers look at and make judgments about their own behavior. The influence tools of commitment and consistency relate specifically to people's desire to explain their own behavior (attribute causation) in a consistent way. It's important to note that the desire for a consistent self-image is not universally shared.
• Nevertheless, many societies and especially Western cultures value and support personal consistency. Inconsistency in beliefs, words and deeds is viewed as indecisive, weak-willed, flighty, or even mentally ill. Consistency is also economical.
• Influence tactics play on the desire for consistency in a variety of ways. One popular sales technique is called foot-in-the-Door (FITD). FITD represents a technique where compliance witha critical request is increased if an individual first agrees to an initial small request. The typical explanation offered is that people who engage in a behavior, may then adopt an attitude consistent with that behavior, making them more likely to engage subsequently in similar behaviors within that behavioral domain. Results from studying this approach have been largely supportive, although more research is needed to identify the conditions that limit its usefulness.
• The power of commitment as an influence tactic is substantially enhanced when the commitment is made in writing or made public. Amway Corporation has discovered that people live up to what they have written down. They are much less likely to back out of contracts if they have made a personal commitment.
3. Influencers
• Many influence tactics revolve around characteristics of the influencer. Numerous source effects have been researched including similarity, expertise, attractiveness, and likeability. In many cases the celebrity endorser combines one or more of these qualities. All of these influencer characteristics are really ways of determining communicator credibility, or overall believability of the source. It's important to remember that we attend to certain types of information about the source because, in general, this strategy works very well and helps us to make good and efficient choices.
4. Similarity
• An important and often effective guide to behavior is the behavior of a similar other. For example, when someone with tastes very similar to our own recommends a movie or a CD, we are likely to feel more confident that it will be a movie or CD that we will enjoy. Under certain circumstances we would prefer the advice of someone similar to someone with more expertise. In matters having to do with tastes, values or opinions (where there is no right answer) the impact of a similar communicator is likely to be especially important.
• There are other situations as well where source similarity may affect influence. For example, consider that you are undertaking a hike in the mountains and want to choose a route and decide what to pack. Would you prefer the advice of an expert mountain climber or someone with more expertise hiking those mountains than you, but with similar hiking skills? An interesting variation of this theme is illustrated by Internet services that offer collaborative filtering or individualization technology. Good Practice 15.1 describes collaborative filtering and how it can be used to tailor recommendations to particular user profiles.

Collaborative Filtering (50.0K)

• The central idea of Leon Festinger's theory of social comparison is that people need to compare themselves to others in order to evaluate their own abilities and opinions. Of course we don't compare ourselves to just anybody. We compare ourselves primarily to similar others. We select comparison groups on the basis of their similarity to us. An interesting twist on this principle is provided in some research with U.S. college students. Even though previous research revealed a strong preference for a particular shade of their school color, when it was reported that students at a major rival school also preferred that shade, their preferences shifted away from that shade.
• Because even small similarities can be so effective in producing a response, and because a veneer of similarity is so easy to manufacture, this tool of influence is very popular in many marketing settings. One of the most familiar applications is "common man" advertising. The technique employs someone prototypical of the target segment to deliver the persuasive appeal, and may employ "testimonials" from "real consumers like yourself" advocating the product. This approach can be very successful if people believe the source is similar and believe the testimonial is heartfelt.
5. Expertise
• Another way in which we may assess the credibility of another is on expertise. Numerous studies have demonstrated the persuasive advantage of messages delivered by an expert. The endorsement or lack of an endorsement of a product by experts in the field can have significant consequences for the diffusion of that product. Although they are not perceived as the most influential information sources by moviegoers, film critics play a significant role in the launch of a new movie.
• Expertise is a common denominator in the choice of personal influencers. Opinion leaders are influential with consumers as sources of information and advice because of their involvement, expertise and experience in a product category. Opinion leaders are highly credible sources because they are perceived as neutral, they have product expertise, and they can tailor their recommendations to the specific opinion receiver. An opinion leader in one product category is likely to be an opinion receiver in a different product category. Market Mavens are distinguishable from opinion leaders because their influence stems not from product category expertise, but from general knowledge or market expertise. They possess a wide range of information about many different types of products, retail outlets and other aspects of markets and like to share this information with others. Similar to opinion leaders, market mavens are influential because of consumers' perception that they offer an informed (expert) opinion on many market decisions. Market mavens like to share their information-they are socially motivated and want to help consumers make good choices. Finally, innovators, or the earliest adoptersof new products, are influential, in part, because of their experience with the new product.
6. Attractiveness
• A number of studies have supported that physical attractiveness may make a source more persuasive. Some particularly disturbing research suggests that attractive politicians receive more votes than unattractive candidates by a margin of more than 2 to 1, that attractive defendants are twice as likely to avoid jail as unattractive ones, and that attractive schoolchildren are viewed as better behaved and intelligent then their less attractive classmates. Why good-looking people have more influence and are regarded more favorable is something of a mystery. In some cases those who are attractive may trigger value-expressive influence-people would like to appear to others as the attractive ones appear to others; thus, the attractive people are appealing to emulate.
7. Liking
• The effects of similarity and physical attractiveness on influence may relate to a more basic element in the influence equation: liking. Consumers are influenced by people we like. When people like someone, they may also want to be perceived by others the way the individual is perceived (at least in some respects), and that too makes influence possible. Finally, people are inclined to believe the liked person is trustworthy and therefore will provide useful information in helping us manage our environment.
• Mounting evidence suggests that trustworthiness is a crucial factor in successful strategic alliances, and other partnering arrangements. Many factors in addition to similarity and physical attractiveness affect whether we like someone. For instance, some research suggests that when very dissimilar people are brought together in close physical contact with each other, facing common crises that require unified action, a very important bonding takes place that can create lasting and strong friendships. How is this relevant to marketing? This and other research suggests that salespeople's close contact and cooperation with customers can be important ways of creating commercial friendships.
8. Scarcity
• A powerful and frequently employed influence tactic is summarized by the scarcity principle - something in short supply is more attractive than something that is plentiful.
• One of the powers of the scarcity principle is that North Americans hate to lose opportunities because losing opportunities or freedoms diminishes feelings of personal control. They react against this by desiring the product or object about to be withheld much more than they would otherwise. Anytime the freedom to select a product or service is impeded, consumers respond by reacting against the threat. One-day only sales, limited editions, and last one on the shelf all appeal to this psychological reactance against a loss of options and control. Marketers who have discontinued or changed their product line have often faced outrage and even protests by loyal consumers. This happened with Coca Cola's introduction of New Coke and with Crayola's change in their traditional crayon colors. Cultures where consumers are very accustomed to scarcity (such as much of central and eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union) might not experience this psychological reactance. However, even in these cultures the scarcity principle may operate, but for different reasons, as described next.
• Another reason why the scarcity principle works is because of a general connection, experienced over time, between demand and subsequent scarcity. Things that are in demand become scarce. Thus, scarce goods may imply popularity-also an important influencer.
• An interesting series of studies illustrates that the presence of a restriction in a promotion (i.e., purchase limit, purchase precondition, or time limit) serves to enhance value and increases sales, but not with all consumers and not all the time. Unscrupulous marketers can use restrictions to fool some consumers into believing that a mediocre deal is a good deal.
• In addition, there may be a tendency to believe that things that are difficult to possess are better than those that are easy to possess. Over our lives we learn a connection between effort or investment and worth. This kicks in to explain our desire to have things that are difficult to possess. Often this feeling combines with a desire to have something that distinguishes us from others. Something not everyone else can have. The connection between the scarcity principle and the desire for distinction is evidenced in the limited production of many prestige goods.
• People in many cultures share the desire for distinction, although it is certainly less important in some cultures than in others. An unusual example of the extreme importance of distinction is described in Consumer Chronicles 15.4.

Gaining Distinction in the Congo (50.0K)

• All of us are influenced both by groups that we belong to and groups that we don't belong to. Almost all consumer behaviors take place within a group setting, and groups serve as one of the primary agents of socialization and learning. A reference group or comparison group is a group whose presumed perspectives, attitudes or behaviors are used by an individual as the basis for his or her perspectives, attitudes or behaviors.
• Consumer Chronicles 15.5 describes one important reference group for many Japanese youth, that is, bosozoku drivers. These youth use as referents media-made images of American youth as well as their vision of ancient symbols of power and courage such as Kamikaze warriors.

Bosozoku Youth in Japan (50.0K)

1. Types of Reference Groups
• We classify groups according to membership, attraction and degree of contact.
1. Membership
• Some groups have formal membership, such that one is either a member or not. Other groups, such as cliques or informal collections of people, may have less formal rules for membership and individuals may report confusion about whether they are a member or not. For example, membership in a community may be strongly or weakly held.
• Whether membership is formal or informal, strength of association with the group varies dramatically among members. For example, new initiates of a fraternity will typically feel much less secure about their membership than senior fraternity members getting ready to graduate.
2. Attraction
• Attraction refers to the level and direction of affect (or emotional response) that the group holds for an individual. Attraction can be either positive or negative and may be associated with either membership or non-membership groups. Exhibit 15.1 helps summarize these four major types of reference groups.

Types of Reference Groups (50.0K)

• For example, a high school student may confess to being "something of a nerd" (membership group), but feel negative attraction to the group and desire to disassociate or disclaim membership in this group. For this student, nerds are a disclaimant reference group. This student may attempt to avoid consumption behaviors common to the nerd group in an attempt to disassociate from it.
• Alternatively, a high school cheerleader may feel very positively about her membership in that group. In this case she is likely to adhere to the group norms, and act in ways to reinforce her membership role in that group. For her, being a cheerleader constitutes a contractualreference group. Many of her consumption behaviors may be very similar to those of the members of her group, as she and other members use similar consumption behaviors to reinforce their membership roles.
• Some important group influence can derive from a group the individual doesn't belong to, but has either strong positive attraction toward-an aspirational reference group-or very strong negative attraction toward-an avoidance reference group. Just because an individual feels a strong positive attraction to a particular group does not necessarily mean that she/he desires membership in that group, but it may mean that the group will be very influential in certain of the individual's attitudes and behaviors.
• The influence of aspirational reference groups has been demonstrated in many different studies. For example, one study asked college students at a western university in the U.S. about their intentions to adopt a new "cordless headphone that could be used with any current personal or home stereo system." The findings suggest that aspirational group influence affect consumer attitudes and intentions in at least three distinct ways. First, the endorsement of the product by an aspirational reference group (the U.S. Ski Team) enhanced students' perceptions about the social desirability of new product consumption. Second, the endorsement had a direct positive effect on the perceived visibility of early adoption behavior. Finally, the endorsement had a significant influence on perceptions of sound quality. Although the U.S. Ski Team would not necessarily have any specific expertise in judging sound quality, their endorsement led consumers to infer better sound quality. One explanation for this type of aspirational group influence is provided by the model of meaning transfer. The focus of this model is on the transfer of culturally relevant meanings from the endorser to the product. In the example of the cordless headphone, meanings such as "performance" and "quality" may move from the aspirational group to the new product through the endorsement process. In this case the consumer recognizes an "essential similarity" between the endorser (in this case, the U.S. Ski Team) and the new product (a cordless headphone).
• What about the influence of avoidance groups? Are we influenced by non-membership, negative affect groups? Do we avoid certain clothing and behaviors out of fear that we will be mistaken for "one of them?" Certainly, in the case of gangs, the influence of avoidance groups is apparent-wearing a particular symbol could result in death. However, the influence of avoidance groups can also operate more subtly. For example, earlier we referenced a study where college students changed their color preferences to avoid sharing preferences with students from a rival school.
3. Degree of Contact
• Degree of contact refers to how much interpersonal contact the group members have with each other. Groups characterized by frequent interpersonal contact are referred to as primary groups. Groups characterized by limited interpersonal contact are called secondary groups. Although, in general, we might expect primary groups to have more influence, we can think of many obvious exceptions. Reference groups have domains of influence. It's entirely possible to respect and be influenced by a group in one area, but not in some other area.
2. The Degree of Reference Group Influence
• A multitude of factors is likely to affect the degree of reference group influence on a particular purchase or consumption behavior. Studies have shown that some individuals are more susceptible to reference group influence than others.
• A variety of studies have also shown that certain types of product and consumption choices are more likely to be influenced by reference groups than other product and consumption choices. Industry Insights 15.1 illustrates some findings about influentials for the hip-hop generation. The "hip-hop culture" is the largest sub-culture of urban youth composed of predominantly African-American teens and numbering 14 million. For this group peer approval is vital and they may well be the most difficult group to reach with mainstream messages.

Reaching the Hip-Hop Generation (50.0K)

• Exhibit 15.2 illustrates some key dimensions that are likely to influence the degree of reference group influence. If a behavior is not visible to others and/or not distinctive then it is less vulnerable to reference group influence. The use of uniforms in schools is an attempt to take a highly visible behavior (which is very vulnerable to group influence), and make it undistinguished.

Consumption Situations and Degree of Reference Group Influence (50.0K)

• What constitutes distinctive behavior varies from reference group to reference group. For example, college students owning skis in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania may be distinctive but in Boulder, Colorado, the vast majority of college students own skis. To be distinctive in Boulder, Colorado requires this years' elite brand of skis.
• Finally, as we noted previously, reference groups are influential because we often believe their information is better than ours. Thus, in situations where compared to a reference group we perceive ourselves to have low information, and are not confident about our own attitudes or behaviors, the reference group may exert considerable influence. Thus, in unfamiliar consumption situations and complex product choices reference groups are very influential.
• Similarly, with products and services where we can't easily assess quality for ourselves, reference groups may be relied on. An economist, Philip Nelson, talks about three types of product choices. The first type of product choice is one where it is possible to determine the quality of theproduct from observation (if we have the expertise to do so). He calls products with these characteristics search goods. This type of product choice would include such things as fresh produce (lettuce, carrots, and bananas), clothing and furniture. The second type of product choice requires experience before it's possible to ascertain quality. Nelson terms these products experienced goods. For example, after seeing a movie it's easy to judge, at least for yourself, what the quality is, but it's difficult to apprise quality in advance. To decide on a movie we often rely on surrogate experience, the reported experience of someone else, in thiscase, friends or film critics. The third type of product choice is one where even after purchase and consumption it's difficult to evaluate quality. Nelson refers to these products as credence goods. Checkups on people and cars are examples of credence goods. We hope that if there's something wrong the physician or car mechanic found it, but we can't really be sure. In these cases we rely on information from others about the reputation of the service provider.