Chapter Overview

In this chapterwe examine perception. In so doing, we are beginning to move from a consideration of background factors in the wheel of consumption towards those factors that more directly influence acquisition and consumption. Perception is a process of giving meaning to sensory stimuli. People act and react on the basis of their perceptions. Although perceptions are a basic building block in trying to understand consumers, there is something elusive and fleeting about perceptions and they have many aspects. Many aspects of the perception process remain mysterious to science. An important conclusion of research, however, is that perceptions are learned as part of the enculturation process, and as a result, may be manipulated and altered.

Underlying perception is sensation. By sensation we mean the immediate and direct response of the sensory systems to stimuli. Sensations vary between persons, social groups and cultures. We detect stimuli through a variety of sensory receptions. These are the organs of perception. Some researchers suggest there are as many as 32 different sensory systems. Sensation is provoked in large part by changes in sensory input. Two different sensory thresholds are important in marketing. One is the absolute threshold; the minimum of input to be detected by the various sensory receptors in the human body. As marketers we frequently attempt to provoke consumers attention by crossing the absolute threshold in novel ways. Another important notion is that of the just noticeable difference (JND) or differential threshold. This notion conveys the idea of the minimum change in sensation necessary for a person to detect it. A theorem known as Weber's Law states that the stronger the initial sensory stimulus, the greater the additional intensity needed for the second stimulus to be perceived as different. The most important implication of Weber's Law for marketers is the necessity of determining the JND to optimize any changes in the marketing mix.

We think of our senses as "windows" on the world, but a primary function of sensory systems is to discard "irrelevant or useless" information. As such, our sensory systems serve as selection systems. The physiology of our senses in part determines the characteristics of our personally constructed worlds. However, our perceptions are also subject to our own personal history and a given culture. Perception begins with an exposure to a stimulus. Preattentive processing refers to the simultaneous preconscious monitoring of all sensory channels for events that will require a shift in attention. Today there's more competition than ever for people's attention. Perceptual selection refers to the fact that consumers select only a small portion of the stimuli to which they are exposed for conscious processing, or focal attention. A variety of factors will lead to increased selection. One of the most important factors influencing selection of stimuli for further processing is consumers' motives and goals. Of course, some of the time, the stimulus itself attracts the consumer's attention. For example, atypicality of execution format can provoke perceptual selection. Contrast effects also elicit attention. A variety of tricks of perception are all used to surprise people into paying attention to commercial messages.

The second step that we can distinguish in the perceptual process is perceptual organization. Categorization is a fundamental sense-making activity that encompasses all forms of stimulus situations. Categorization schemes allow people to give coherence to their general knowledge about other people, objects, situations, etc. A key feature of categories is that they are functional, and, as such, are shaped by personal goals, values, or the need to respond. Another key feature of categories is that they are socially and culturally constructed and learned. Categorization operates at different levels of abstraction. Marketers often make use of our human tendency to make sense of perceptual data, on the basis of partial information. Three illustrations of this tendency: grouping, figure-and-ground discriminations, and the closure principle, are especially common. In all cases, when presented with ambiguous stimuli, we try to clarify our perceptions for ourselves.

The third step that we can distinguish in the perceptual process is interpretation. Organization and interpretation are very intertwined. Both have to do with comprehension and sense-making. Whereas the principles of perceptual organization are most often applied unconsciously, at least part of the time, interpretation is a conscious process. At least two different sorts of knowledge structures are important to interpretation. One type is called schemes and the other type is called scripts. Even schemas and scripts for something as basic as going to a restaurant are quite complicated and typically allow for many different contingencies, goals, and context effects. Whether we are aware of it or note, knowledge about cultural roles, settings, goals and event sequences are basic to interpretation.

Interpretation comes about through a fundamental semiotic process that links three components of every stimulus: object, sign, and interpretant. The relationships between object, sign and interpretant and entirely conventional. This is dramatically illustrated in numerous cross-cultural marketing situations. Effective use of perceptual schema can increase consumers' involvement with, and liking for products and services. Misuse of the conventional associations between sign, object and interpretant can also provoke marketing blunders and are especially common cross-culturally.

An important aspect of interpretation is perceptual inferences. Inferences are interpretations that go beyond the information given. Consumer inference processes are Misuse of the conventional associations between sign, object and interpretant can also provoke marketing blunders and are especially common cross-culturally.

An important aspect of interpretation is perceptual inferences. Inferences are interpretations that go beyond the information given. Consumer inference processes are very contingent on context, consumers' goals and the structure and accessibility of knowledge in memory. Understanding perceptual inferences is very important to marketers. One important application is to consumer evaluations of brand extensions. Success depends on the inferences consumers make between the brand name and the new product. Perceptual judgments and inferences are fundamental to several other basic marketing problems including perceived quality, perceived risk, and country-of-origin effects.

Sometimes consumer interpretation of perceptual stimuli also includes high levels of elaboration. At high levels of elaboration people engage in processes such as counter arguing, problem-solving, daydreaming and fantasizing. Stimuli that encourage elaboration can be enormously effective. One of the most illusive and interesting forms of elaboration is imagery processing. People use imagery processing to frame problems, supply missing information and assess probabilities.

In this chapter we have focused primarily on how people sense, perceive, organize, interpret and elaborate stimuli. However, we also briefly discussed the importance of sensory preferences or "taste" in decisions consumers make. We noted that tastes vary between cultures and times and that they are used to signal and distinguish who we are. Each culture, or sub-culture has arbitrator of taste, who function to define and change what's tasteful and what's not. The idea of taste is fundamental to the success of many industries, and is certainly basic to many effective advertising. In the chapters that follow we will talk more about the relationship between perceptions and preferences, and we will also describe in more detail how other people and institutions affect our sensory preferences and perceptual judgments.