Glossary

Ahaz	King of Judah (c. 735-716 b.c.e.) and father of Hezekiah, who succeeded him. Although Ahaz reigned during the ministries of Isaiah and Micah, he compromised the Yahwist religion to curry favor with Assyria, whose vassal Judah became (2 Kings 16).



Amos	A shepherd and "dresser of sycamore [fig] trees" from the Judean village of Tekoa who denounced the religious and social practices of the northern kingdom (Israel) during the reign of Jeroboam II (c. 786-746 b.c.e.), Amos was the first biblical prophet whose words were collected and preserved in a book.



apostasy	From a Greek term meaning "to revolt," apostasy is the act of abandoning or rejecting a previously held religious faith. An apostate is one who has defected from or ceased to practice his or her religion.



Ashdod	One of the five major cities of the Phil-istines (Josh. 13:3), where the captured Ark of the Covenant was placed in Dagon's temple (1 Sam. 5:1-8).



Baruch	Secretary and friend of Jeremiah, Baruch (blessed) recorded the prophet's message, which probably became the nucleus of the Jeremiah scroll (Jer. 36; 32:9-14; 43:6). The apocryphal Book of Baruch was attributed to him, as were the apocalypses of 2 and 3 Baruch in the Pseudepigrapha.



Cyrus the Great	Founder of the Persian Empire and conqueror of Babylon (539 b.c.e.) who liberated the Jews from captivity and decreed their return to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple (2 Chron. 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-8). Second Isaiah calls him Yahweh's "shepherd" (Isa. 44:28) and his "Anointed" or "Messiah" (Isa. 45:1).



Deutero-Isaiah	Also known as Second Isaiah, the name assigned to the anonymous prophet responsible for Chapters 40-55 of the Book of Isaiah and to the work itself.



Edom	In Hebrew Bible times, a region or country extending southward from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqabah, bordered on the north by Moab, on the northwest by Judah, on the east and southeast by the Sinai desert (Num. 20:14-21; 2 Kings 3:20; etc.). It was also called "Seir" (Gen. 32:3; Num. 24:18; Judg. 5:4), identified with Esau (Gen. 36:1), and thought to be Yahweh's original homeland (Deut. 33:2; Judg. 5:4-5; Hab. 3:3). Famous for its wisdom tradition (Obad. 8; Jer. 49:7), Edom is the setting for the Job story and may have contributed the central ideas of that philosophical work.



Edomites	According to Genesis, descendants of Jacob's twin brother, Esau, "who is Edom" (Gen. 36:1); a Semitic people who occupied the territory southeast of Judah and were among Israel's bitterest enemies (Judg. 11; 2 Kings 8:20-22; Ps. 137:7; Amos 1-2; 9; Ezek. 25:12-14; 35:1-15). The Edomites later infiltrated southern Judea, which in Hellenistic times was called Idumea (Mark 3:8).



eschatology	From the Greek, meaning a "study of last things," eschatology is a doctrine or theological concept about the ultimate destiny of humanity and the universe. Having both a personal and a general application, it can refer to (1) beliefs about the individual soul following death, including divine judgment, heaven, hell, and resurrection; or (2) larger concerns about the fate of the cosmos, such as events leading to the Day of Yahweh, the final battle between supernatural Good and Evil, judgment of the nations, and the establishment of the Deity's universal sovereignty. In Christian terms, it involves the Parousia (return of Christ), the chaining of Satan, introduction of the millennium, and so on. Apocalyptic works like Daniel, Revelation, 2 Esdras, and the books of Enoch typically stress eschatological matters.



Ezekiel	A major prophet of the sixth century b.c.e., exiled to Babylon, who was distinguished by his strange visions and priestly concerns. The name means "God strengthens."



Habakkuk	A prophet of the late seventh or early sixth century b.c.e., perhaps a Levitical temple musician (Hab. 1:1; 3:1, 19), and presumed author of the book bearing his name.



Haggai	A postexilic prophet who, with his contemporary Zechariah, urged the restored community of Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple (520 b.c.e.).



Hezekiah	Son of Ahaz and fourteenth king of Judah (c. 715-686 b.c.e.), Hezekiah ruled during the Assyrian crisis when Sargon II and then Sennacherib overran Palestine. His reign was notable for the prophetic careers of Isaiah and Micah and for sweep-ing religious reforms, which included purging the Jerusalem Temple of non-Yahwistic elements (2 Kings 18-20; Isa. 22:15-25, 36-39; 2 Chron. 29-32).



Hosea	An eighth-century prophet active in the northern kingdom from before the death of Jeroboam II (c. 746 b.c.e.) until shortly before its fall to Assyria in 721 b.c.e.; the source of the Book of Hosea, first in the printed list of Minor Prophets.



Immanuel	The name (meaning "God is with us") that Isaiah gave to a child whose birth he predicted as a sign to King Ahaz during the Syro-Ephraimite War (late eighth century b.c.e.). Although not presented as a messianic prophecy, it was nevertheless interpreted as such (Mic. 5:3; Matt. 1:22-23).



Isaiah	An eighth-century prophet and counselor of Judean kings, Isaiah of Jerusalem was active during the reigns of Uzziah, Jothan, Ahaz, and Hezekiah (collectively, 783-687 b.c.e.) (Isa. 1:1; 6:1; 7:1-12; 38:1-6). Oracles attributed to this historical figure are found in Isaiah 1-39, particularly in Chapters 1-11, 20, 22, and 28-31. (Chs. 24-27, 33-35, and 36-39 are thought to be by other hands.) Second Isaiah, who lived during the Babylonian exile (587-538 b.c.e.), contributed Chapters 40-55. Third Isaiah, whose work is found in Chapters 56-66, lived during the postexilic period. A complete text of Isaiah, possibly dating from the second century b.c.e., was found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.



Jehoiakim	Second son of Josiah, Jehoiakim was made king of Judah about 609 b.c.e., when Pharaoh Necho of Egypt placed him on the throne, deposing his brother Jehoahaz, who had reigned only three months (2 Kings 23:34; 2 Chron. 36:4). Another brother, Zedekiah, replaced Jehoiakim's heir, Jehoiachin, to become Judah's last Davidic monarch. The Deuteronomistic historians, the Chronicler, and the prophet Jeremiah all denounced his religious apostasy and misguided attempts to combat Babylonian domination with Egyptian alliances (2 Kings 23:36-24:6; 2 Chron. 36:5-8; Jer. 25-26; 36). Ignoring Jeremiah's advice (Jer. 36:1-26), Jehoiakim died or was assassinated before paying the consequences of his rebellion against Babylon (2 Kings 24:6). The Chronicler states that he was chained and carried off to Babylon (2 Chron. 36:6-7), but this was the fate of his son and heir, Jehoiachin (2 Kings 24:12-16; 2 Chron. 36:10).



Jeremiah	One of Israel's greatest prophets, Jeremiah warned Jerusalem and its kings of their misdeeds and of coming doom by the Babylonians for approximately forty years (c. 627-587 b.c.e.) (Jer. 1:1-3). Beginning in the thirteenth year of Josiah's reign (640-609 b.c.e.), he also prophesied during the reigns of Jehoiakim (609-598 b.c.e.), Jehoiachin (598/597 b.c.e.), and Zedekiah (597-587 b.c.e.), continuing after Jerusalem's fall (587 b.c.e.) and during a forced exile in Egypt (Jer. 40-44). Although persecuted by both government officials and his compatriots for his unpopular (and seemingly treasonous) message that Yahweh had forsaken Judah and determined its annihilation, Jeremiah persisted in attacking official policy and denouncing those who trusted in the Temple (Jer. 1:11; 15; 21-22; 25-28; 36-38). After Jerusalem's fall, he was treated well by the Babylonians (Jer. 39-40), but his fellow survivors forcibly transported him to Egypt (Jer. 42-44). His message is known for its promise of a new covenant and a restoration of Judah (Jer. 30-33).



Jeroboam II	A descendant of Jehu, son of King Jehonash, and ruler of Israel (786-746 b.c.e.) whose long reign brought relative peace and material prosperity to the northern kingdom, Jeroboam II won major victories over Ben-hadad, king of Syria, and extended Israel's territory so that it included almost all the territory over which David and Solomon had ruled, except Judah. The Deuteronomistic account of his reign (2 Kings 14:23-29) gives no indication of its importance. The prophets Amos and Hosea, who were active during the time of Jeroboam II, denounced the country's economic oppression of the poor as well as its widespread materialism.



Joel	Although numerous biblical figures bore this name (meaning "Yahweh is God"), the best known is the son of Pethuel (Joel 1:1), a prophet of postexilic Judah (perhaps c. 350 b.c.e.).



Jonah	A son of Amittai, a Zebulunite from Gath-hepher whom Yahweh sent as prophet to warn Nineveh of its impending doom (Jon. 1:1-16). The "sign of Jonah," who was reputedly delivered from death inside a sea monster (Jon. 1:17-2:10), is cited in the Synoptics as prophetic of Jesus' death and resurrection (Matt. 12:40; 16:4; Luke 11:29-30).



Judaism	The name applied to the religion of the people of Judah (the Jews) after the northern kingdom of Israel fell (721 b.c.e.) and particularly after the Babylonian exile (587-538 b.c.e.).



Malachi	The title of the last book of the Minor Prophets, the word means "my messenger" (Mal. 3:1) and may have been affixed by an editor (Mal. 1:1) who mistook it for a proper name.



Micah	A Judean prophet of the late eighth century b.c.e. and younger contemporary of Isaiah of Jerusalem (Isa. 2:2-4; Mic. 4:1-3). A rural figure who denounced the evils of urban life (Mic. 1:5) and predicted Jerusalem's fall (Mic. 3:12; cited in Jer. 26:18-19), his oracles form most of the present Book of Micah in the Minor Prophets. His name means "Who is like Yahweh?"



Nahum	A prophet from Elkosh (Nah. 1:1) who delivered poems rejoicing in Nineveh's fall and the destruction of the Assyrian Empire (612 b.c.e.).



navi (nabi)	The Hebrew word for "prophet," a spokesperson for Yahweh who delivered his God's judgments on contemporary society and expressed his intentions toward the world (Deut. 13:1-5; 18:9-22; Amos 3:7; etc.).



Obadiah	(1) One of Ahab's stewards, who hid 100 Yahwist prophets in caves during Jezebel's persecutions and who arranged the meeting between Ahab and Elijah (1 Kings 18:3-16) that resulted in a contest between Yahweh and Baal on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18:17-46). (2) Traditionally recognized as author of the Book of Obadiah, about whom nothing is known. His book is fourth and shortest among the Minor Prophets.



oracle	(1) A divine message or utterance (Rom. 3:2; Heb. 5:12; 1 Pet. 4:11) or the person through whom it is conveyed (Acts 7:38). (2) An authoritative communication, such as that from a wise person (Prov. 31:1; 2 Sam. 16:23). (3) The inner sanctum of the Jerusalem Temple (1 Kings 6:5-6; 7:49; 8:6-8; Ps. 28:2). (4) The supposedly inspired words of a priest or priestess at such shrines as Delphi in ancient Greece and Cumae in Italy.



parallelism	A structural feature typical of Hebrew poetry, consisting of the repetition of similar or antithetical thoughts in similar phrasing: "The wicked will not stand firm when Judgment comes nor sinners when the virtuous assemble" (Ps. 1:5).



Queen of Heaven	A Semitic goddess of love and fertility worshiped in various forms throughout the ancient Near East. Known as Ishtar to the Babylonians, she was denounced by Jeremiah but worshiped by Jewish refugees in Egypt after the fall of Jerusalem (Jer. 7:18; 44:17-19, 25).



resurrection	The returning of the dead to life, a late Hebrew Bible belief (Isa. 26:19; Dan. 12:2-3, 13) that first became prevalent in Judaism during the time of the Maccabees (after 168 b.c.e.) and became a part of the Pharisees' doctrine. Like the prophets Elijah and Elisha (1 Kings 17:17-24; 2 Kings 4:18-37), Jesus performed several resuscitations: of the widow of Nain's son (Luke 7:11-17), the daughter of Jairus (Mark 5:21-43), and Lazarus (John 11:1-44). Unlike these personages, however, Jesus ascended to heaven after his own resurrection (Acts 1:7-8). Paul gives the fullest discussion of the resurrection in the New Testament (1 Thess. 4; 1 Cor. 15), although he leaves many questions unanswered (see also Matt. 25:31-46 and Rev. 20:13).



seer	A clairvoyant or diviner who experiences ecstatic visions (1 Sam. 9:9-11); forerunner of the prophets.



Sennacherib	Son of Sargon II and king of Assyria (704-681 b.c.e.). In 701 b.c.e., Sennacherib devastated Tyre and besieged Jerusalem, after which he levied heavy tribute upon King Hezekiah of Judah (2 Kings 18). A clay prism recording Sennacherib's version of the Judean campaign tallies well with 2 Kings 18:14-16 but strikingly diverges from the story of 185,000 Assyrian soldiers slain by Yahweh's angel in a single night (2 Kings 19:10-35; Isa. 37:9-36).



Uzziah (Azariah)	Son of Amaziah, king of Judah (783-742 b.c.e.), and a contemporary of King Jeroboam II of Israel (786-746 b.c.e.) (2 Kings 14:22; 15:1-7; 2 Chron. 26:1-23), Uzziah fortified Jerusalem; defeated the Philistines, Ammonites, and Arabs; and greatly extended Judah's political jurisdiction. Both the Deuteronomist and the Chronicler rate him as "pleasing" Yahweh, although the latter attributes the king's leprosy to his usurping priestly functions in the Temple.



Zadok	A priest officiating during the reigns of David and Solomon who supported the latter's claim to the throne and was rewarded by being made chief priest at the Temple (2 Sam. 15:24-29; 17:15; 19:11; 20:25; 1 Kings 1:7-8; 32-39; 45; 2 Kings 35; 1 Chron. 6:4-15, 50-52; 12:28). Ezekiel regarded Zadok's descendants as the only legitimate priests (Ezek. 40:46; 43:19; 44:15; 48:11). After the exile, they apparently enjoyed a monopoly in the second Temple (1 Chron. 24:2-19; 27:17; 29:22).



Zechariah	1. The son of Jehoiada the priest, Zechariah was stoned to death for denouncing Judah's idolatry (late ninth century b.c.e.) (2 Chron. 25:20- 22; he is usually identified with Zacharias in Matt. 23:35 and Luke 11:51). 2. The son of Jeroboam II and the last king of Jehu's dynasty in Israel, who reigned only six months (c. 746/745 b.c.e.) before he was murdered (2 Kings 10:30). 3. The son of Berechiah or the priest Iddo (Zech. 1:1, 8; Ezra 5:1; Neh. 12:16), a Judean prophet whose message is contained in the book of the Minor Prophets bearing his name. The latter, a contemporary of Haggai (c. 520-515 b.c.e.), urged the returned exiles to rebuild Yahweh's Temple in Jerusalem. Although Judah was then part of the Persian Empire ruled by Darius, he apparently regarded the Jewish governor, Zerubbabel, a descendant of David, as a potential messianic king (Zech. 4:6-15; 6:9-14). His work is characterized by strange imagery and apocalyptic visions. Chapters 9-14 of the Book of Zechariah are thought to have been appended by a later author. 4. A Judean priest married to Elisabeth, a descendant of Aaron, whose long, childless marriage was blessed in his old age by the birth of the future John the Baptist (Luke 1:5-25, 57-80; 3:2). A vision foretelling the birth rendered him temporarily paralyzed, but he recovered his speech in time to name the child and to utter a prayer of thanksgiving-the Benedictus (Luke 1:67-79). 5. A Jewish martyr mentioned in Jesus' phrase "from Abel to Zecharias" (Matt. 23:35; Luke 11:51), usually identified with Zechariah, son of Jehoiada in 2 Chronicles 24:20-24.



Zedekiah	The last king of Judah (c. 597-587 b.c.e.), Zedekiah reigned as a tribute-paying vassal of Nebuchadnezzar (2 Chron. 36:13; Jer. 29:3-7; Ezek. 17:15-18). A weak ruler, he consulted the prophet Jeremiah (Jer. 21:1-7) but acceded to his advisers' pressures to seek help from Egypt in throwing off Babylon's yoke (Jer. 27:12-22; 37:6-21; 38:7-28). When he rebelled against Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to and destroyed Jerusalem (587 b.c.e.). Zedekiah tried to escape but was captured, tried, and condemned to having his sons slain before his eyes and his own eyes put out, after which he was imprisoned in Babylon, where he died (2 Kings 24:17-25:7; 2 Chron. 36:10-21; Jer. 39:6-14; 52:1-27).



Zephaniah	(1) Son of Maaseiah and second-ranking priest under King Zedekiah who acted as go-between for the king in his consultations with Jeremiah (2 Kings 25:18; Jer. 21:1; 29:25-32; 37:3-4; 52:24-27). After Jerusalem's fall, he was executed by the Babylonians. (2) A seventh-century Judean prophet whose pronouncements of judgment are collected in the book bearing his name (Zeph. 1:1). Virtually nothing is known of his life.



Zerubbabel	A son of Shealtiel or Salathiel (Ezra 3:2, 8; Hag. 1:1; Matt. 1:12) or of Pedaiah (1 Chron. 3:19), Zerubbabel (meaning "begotten in Babylon") was a grandson of Jehoiachin, the king of Judah imprisoned in Babylon (1 Chron. 3:17), and therefore a legitimate heir to the Davidic throne. Appointed governor of the restored Jewish community in Jerusalem (Ezra 3; Hag. 1:1, 14), he returned from Babylon with the first group of exiles and, with Joshua, the High Priest, set up an altar to Yahweh and made arrangements to rebuild the Temple. Between the time the work began and the Temple's dedication in 515 b.c.e. (Ezra 6), however, Zerubbabel disappeared from history. The prophets Haggai and Zechariah, who had urged the rebuilding, had both regarded him as a potential messianic king (Hag. 2:20-23; Zech. 4:6b-10a; 6:9-15-the latter passage reworked by later scribes). When these political expectations failed to materialize, hopes were focused on a priestly hierarchy represented by Joshua (Zech. 3:1-4; 6:11-12).



Zion	The name, probably meaning "citadel," for a rocky hill in old Jerusalem, it was originally a Jebusite acropolis that David captured and on which he built his palace and housed the Ark of the Covenant (Judg. 19:11-12; 2 Sam. 5:6-12; 6:12-17; 1 Chron. 11:5-8). David purchased a threshing floor in Zion (2 Sam. 24:18-25) on which Solomon later built the Temple. In time, the term referred either to the hill on which the Temple stood or to the surrounding city of Jerusalem (Pss. 2:6; 9:11; 76:2; 127:3; Isa. 1:26-27; 10:24; 30:19; 64:10; Jer. 31:6; Amos 1:2; Mic. 3:12).

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