 |  Understanding the Bible: Sixth Edition, 6/e Stephen Harris,
California State University--Sacramento
Between the Two Testaments:Hellenistic Culture and the Growth of Multiple Judaisms
Glossary| Asclepius | The Greek god of medicine, he was the son of a mortal woman, Coronis, and Apollo, god of prophecy, health, purification, and the creative arts. As the archetypal physician whose skill could even raise the dead, he was posthumously deified and allegedly effected miraculous cures at shrines throughout the Greco-Roman world.
| | | | | Caiaphas | Joseph Caiaphas, high priest of Jerusalem during the reign of the emperor Tiberius (Matt. 26:3, 57-66; John 9:49; 18:13-28; Acts 4:6). Son-in-law to his immediate predecessor, Annas, he was appointed to the office by the procurator Valerius Gratus and presided over Jesus' trial before the Sanhedrin.
| | | | | Dead Sea Scrolls | Biblical and other religious manuscripts dating from the second century b.c.e. to the first century c.e., found in caves near Qumran on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea.
| | | | | Dionysus | Ancient Greek god of wine, ecstasy, and emotional freedom, he was the son of Zeus and a mortal woman, Semele. Representing the natural cycle of life, death, and rebirth, he is killed, descends into the Underworld (Hades), and is resurrected to immortal life among the Olympian gods.
| | | | | Epicureanism | A Greco-Roman philosophy founded by Epicurus that advocated avoiding pain and pursuing intellectual rather than sensual pleasure. Epicurus taught that the universe is entirely physical, including the human soul, which perishes at death.
| | | | | Essenes | According to Josephus, one of the three major sects of first-century c.e. Judaism. Semi-ascetic in nature, the Essenes were spiritual descendants of the hasidim (meaning "pious") who had resisted Antiochus IV's attempts to destroy the Jewish religion. Their apocalyptic convictions and certain of their rituals akin to baptism have suggested to some scholars that they were an influence on such representative pre-Christian figures as John the Baptist. They are commonly identified with the Qumran community, which produced the Dead Sea Scrolls.
| | | | | exegesis | A literary term denoting close analysis and interpretation of a text to discover the original author's exact intent and meaning. Once this has been established, later interpretations may also be considered.
| | | | | Gamaliel | A leading Pharisee, scholar, member of the Sanhedrin (Acts 5:34), reputed teacher of Paul (Acts 22:3), and exponent of the liberal wing of the Pharisaic party developed by his grandfather Hillel, Gamaliel persuasively argued for a policy of toleration toward the new religion preached by Peter and other apostles (Acts 5:38-40).
| | | | | Gemara | The second part of the Talmud; an extensive commentary, in Aramaic, on the Hebrew Mishnah.
| | | | | Gentile | Someone who is not a Jew, an uncircumcised person, one belonging to "the nations" (Ps. 9:17; Isa. 2:2; Zeph. 2:1; Hag. 2:7; Matt. 1:11; 12:21; Luke 21:24; etc.).
| | | | | Hades | The Greek term for the Underworld, abode of the dead, named for Zeus's brother Hades, god of the nether regions. In the Septuagint Bible, it is used to translate Sheol, the Hebrew word for the gloomy subterranean place where all the dead, good and evil alike, were eternally housed (Gen. 42:38; 1 Sam. 2:6; Job 7:9; Ps. 6:5; Prov. 27:20; Eccles. 9:10; Isa. 38:18; etc.). In the New Testament, Hades is also the usual term for the Underworld, although Gehenna (often translated "hell") is cited as the place of punishment (Matt. 5:22, 29, 30; 16:18; Mark 9:43, 45, 47; Luke 12:5; Acts 2:31; Rev. 1:18, 20:14; etc.).
| | | | | Herod | The name of seven Palestinian rulers.
1. Herod I (the Great), the Idumean Roman-appointed king of Judea (40-4 b.c.e.), was ruling when Jesus was born (Matt. 2:1). An able administrator who completely reconstructed the Jerusalem Temple, he was notorious for reputed cruelty and was almost universally hated by the Jews.
2. Herod Antipas, son of Herod I, tetrarch of Galilee (Luke 3:1) and Perea (4 b.c.e.-39 c.e.), is frequently mentioned in the New Testament. Jesus, who called him "that fox" (Luke 13:31-32) and regarded him as a malign influence (Mark 8:15), was tried before him (Luke 9:7, 9; 23:7-15). Antipas was also responsible for executing John the Baptist (Matt. 14:1-12).
3. Herod Archelaus, ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, so misruled his territory that he was recalled to Rome, an event to which Jesus apparently refers in Luke 19:12-27. Archelaus's evil reputation caused Joseph and Mary to avoid Judea and settle in Nazareth (Matt. 2:22-23).
4. Herod, a son of Herod the Great and half-brother to Herod Antipas (Matt. 14:3; Mark 6:17).
5. Herod Philip II, son of Herod the Great and half-brother of Herod Antipas, ruled portions of northeastern Palestine and rebuilt the city of Caesarea Philippi near Mount Hermon (Luke 3:1).
6. Herod Agrippa I, son of Aristobulus and grandson of Herod the Great, ingratiated himself at the imperial court in Rome and, under Claudius, was made king over most of Palestine (41-44 c.e.). A persecutor of Christians, he reportedly died a horrible death immediately after accepting divine honors (Acts 12:1-23).
7. Herod Agrippa II, son of Herod Agrippa I and great-grandson of Herod the Great, was the first king of Chalcis (50 c.e.) and then of the territory formerly ruled by Philip the Tetrarch, as well as of the adjoining area east of Galilee and the upper Jordan. This was the Herod, together with his sister Bernice, before whom Paul appeared at Caesarea (Acts 25:13-26:32).
| | | | | Herodians | The name applied to members of an influential political movement in first-century c.e. Judaism who supported Herod's dynasty, particularly that of Herod Antipas. Opposing messianic hopes (Mark 3:6), they conspired with the Pharisees to implicate Jesus in disloyalty to Rome (Mark 12:13; Matt. 22:16).
| | | | | Isis | Ancient Egyptian goddess, wife of Osiris and mother of Horus, who was worshiped from prehistoric to Roman times. As a beneficent mother who protected her devotees, Isis was pictured in Egyptian art as a madonna with child, an iconography that influenced later Christian portraits of Mary and the baby Jesus.
| | | | | James | 1. Son of Zebedee, brother of John, and one of the Twelve Apostles (Mark 1:19-20; 3:17; Matt. 4:21-22; 10:2; Luke 5:10; 6:14). A Galilean fisherman, he left his trade to follow Jesus and, with John and Peter, became a member of his inner circle. He was among the three disciples present at the Transfiguration (Mark 9:2-10; Matt. 17:1-9; Luke 9:28-36) and was at Jesus' side during the last hours before his arrest (Mark 14:32-42; Matt. 26:36-45). James and John used their intimacy to request a favored place in the messianic kingdom, thus arousing the other apostles' indignation (Mark 10:35-45). James was beheaded when Herod Agrippa I persecuted the Jerusalem church (41-44 c.e.) (Acts 12:2).
2. James, son of Alphaeus and Mary (Acts 1:13; Mark 16:1), one of the Twelve (Matt. 10:3-4), called "the less" or "the younger" (Mark 15:40).
3. James, the eldest of Jesus' three "brothers" (or close male relatives) named in the Gospels (Mark 6:3; Matt. 13:55), first opposed Jesus' work (Matt. 12:46-50; Mark 3:31-35; Luke 8:19-21; John 7:3-5) but was apparently converted by one of Jesus' postresurrection appearances (1 Cor. 15:7) and became a leader in the Jerusalem church (Acts 15:13-34; 21:18-26). According to legend, a Nazirite and upholder of the Mosaic Law, he was known as James "the righteous." James apparently clashed with Paul over the latter's policy of absolving Gentile converts from circumcision and other legalistic requirements (Gal. 1:18-2:12). The reputed author of the New Testament Epistle of James, he was martyred at Jerusalem in the early 60s c.e.
| | | | | Jamnia, Academy of | An assembly of eminent Palestinian rabbis and Pharisees held about 90 c.e. in the coastal village of Jamnia (Yavneh) to define and guide Judaism following the Roman destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple. According to tradition, a leading Pharisee named Yohanan ben Zakkai had escaped from the besieged city by simulating death and being carried out in a coffin by his disciples. Yohanan, who had argued that saving human lives was more important than success in the national rebellion against Rome, was given Roman support to set up an academy to study Jewish law. Under his direction, the Pharisees not only preserved the Torah traditions but also apparently formulated what was to become the official biblical canon of Palestinian Judaism. Out of the deliberations at Jamnia came the authoritative list of books in the Writings, the third major division of the Hebrew Bible.
| | | | | John the Baptist | The son of Zechariah, a priest, and Elisabeth (Luke 1:5-24, 56-80), John was an ascetic who preached the imminence of judgment and baptized converts in the Jordan River as a symbol of their repentance from sin (Matt. 3:1-12; Mark 1:2-8; Luke 3:1-18). The Gospel writers viewed him as an Elijah figure and forerunner of the Messiah (Luke 1:17; Matt. 11:12-14; John 1:15, 9-34; 3:22-36) who baptized Jesus but also recognized his superiority (Matt. 3:13-17; Mark 1:9-11; Luke 3:21-22). When imprisoned by Herod Antipas, he inquired whether Jesus were the expected "one who is to come." Jesus' answer was equivocal, but he praised John's work as fulfilling prophecy (Matt. 11:2-19; Luke 7:24-35). At his step-daughter Salome's request, Herod had John beheaded (Matt. 14:6-12; Mark 6:17-29). Some of John's disciples later became Christians (John 1:37; Acts 18:25).
| | | | | Josephus, Flavius | An important Jewish historian (c. 37-100 c.e.) whose two major works-Antiquities of the Jews and The Jewish Wars (covering the revolt against Rome, 66-73 c.e.)-provide valuable background material for first-century Judaism and the early Christian period.
| | | | | Jupiter | Latin name of the chief Roman deity, counterpart of the Greek Zeus, king of the Olympian gods for whom some ignorant men of Lycaonia mistook Paul's companion Barnabas (Acts 14:12-18).
| | | | | Logos | A Greek term meaning both "word" and "reason," used by Greek philosophers to denote the rational principle that creates and informs the universe. Amplified by Philo Judaeus of Alexandria, Egypt, to represent the mediator between God and his material creation, as Wisdom had been in Proverbs 8:22-31, the term found its most famous expression in the prologue to the Fourth Gospel to denote the prehuman Jesus-"the Word became flesh and dwelt among us" (John 1:14).
| | | | | Masoretic Text (MT) | The standard text of the Hebrew Bible as given final form by the Masoretes in the seventh through ninth centuries c.e.
| | | | | Melchizedek | The king-priest of Canaanite Salem (probably the site of Jerusalem) to whom Abraham paid a tenth of his spoils of war (Gen. 14:17-20); cited by the author of Hebrews as foreshadowing Jesus Christ (Ps. 110:4; Heb. 5:6-10; 7:1-25).
| | | | | messiah | A Hebrew term meaning "anointed one," designating a king or priest of ancient Israel who had been consecrated by having his head smeared with holy oil, marking him as set apart for a special role. King David is the model of Yahweh's anointed ruler; all his descendants who ruled over Judah were Yahweh's messiahs (2 Sam. 7:1-29; Ps. 89:3-45). After the end of the Davidic monarchy (587 b.c.e.), various Hebrew prophets applied the promises made to the Davidic dynasty to a future heir who would eventually restore the kingdom of David (Pss. 2, 110; Dan. 9:25-26). Christians believe that Jesus of Nazareth was the promised Messiah (Christ) as expressed in Peter's "confession" (Matt. 16:13-20; Mark 8:27-30; Luke 9:18-22; etc.).
| | | | | Mishnah | From the Hebrew verb "to repeat," a collection of Pharisaic oral interpretations (halakah) of the Torah compiled and edited by Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi about 200 c.e.
| | | | | Mithras | A young Persian god, born from a rock on December 25, who slew the bull of heaven and introduced a salvation cult that swept through the Roman Empire. A serious rival to early Christianity, Mithraism was limited by its acceptance of only male worshipers.
| | | | | Osiris | Ancient Egyptian god of fertility and also of the underworld.
| | | | | Pharisees | A leading religious movement or sect in Judaism during the last two centuries b.c.e. and the two first centuries c.e., the Pharisees were probably descendants of the hasidim who opposed Antiochus IV's attempts to destroy the Mosaic faith. Their name may derive from the Hebrew parush (separated) because their rigorous observance of the law bred a separatist view toward common life. Although the New Testament typically presents them as Jesus' opponents, their views on resurrection and the afterlife anticipated Christian teachings. The "seven woes" against the Pharisees appear in Matthew 23:13-32. Paul was a Pharisee (Acts 23:6; 26:5; Phil. 3:5).
| | | | | Philo Judaeus | The most influential philosopher of Hellenistic Judaism, Philo was a Greek-educated Jew living in Alexandria, Egypt (c. 20 b.c.e.-50 c.e.), who promoted a method of interpreting the Hebrew Bible allegorically (which may have influenced Paul in such passages as 1 Cor. 10:4 and Gal. 4:24, as well as the authors of the fourth Gospel and Hebrews). His doctrine of the Logos (the divine creative Word) shaped the prologue to the Gospel of John.
| | | | | Plato | Greek philosopher (427-347 b.c.e.) who postulated the existence of a dualistic universe consisting of an invisible spiritual realm containing ideal forms of everything that exists and an inferior material realm composed of imperfect replicas of those forms. Plato's view of the immortal human soul and its posthumous destiny greatly influenced virtually all subsequent Western thought, including that of official Christianity.
| | | | | Pontius Pilate | The Roman prefect (also called a procurator) of Judea (26-36 c.e.) who presided at Jesus' trial for sedition against Rome and sentenced him to be crucified (Luke 3:1; 13:1; 23:1-25; Matt. 27:1-26; Mark 15:1-15; John 18:28-19:22; Acts 3:13; 13:28; 1 Tim. 6:13).
| | | | | Qumran | Ruins of an Essene monastic community located near the northwest corner of the Dead Sea, near which the Essene library (Dead Sea Scrolls) were hidden in caves. The Romans destroyed it in 68 c.e.
| | | | | rabbi | A Jewish title (meaning "master" or "teacher") given to scholars learned in the Torah. Jesus was frequently addressed by this title (Matt. 23:8; 26:25, 49; Mark 8:5; 10:51; 11:21; 14:45; John 1:38, 49; 3:2; 4:31; 6:25; 9:2; 11:8; 20:16), as was John the Baptist (John 3:26), although Jesus supposedly forbade his followers to be so called (Matt. 23:7-8).
| | | | | Sadducees | An ultraconservative Jewish sect of the first century b.c.e. and first century c.e. composed largely of wealthy and politically influential landowners. Unlike the Pharisees, the Sadducees recognized only the Torah as binding and rejected the Prophets and Writings, denying both resurrection and a judgement in the afterlife. An aristocracy controlling the priesthood and Temple, they cooperated with Roman rule of Palestine, a collusion that made them unpopular with the common people (Matt. 3:7; 16:1; 22:23; Mark 12:18; Luke 20:27; Acts 4:1; 5:17; 23:6).
| | | | | Samaritans | Inhabitants of the city or territory of Samaria, the central region of Palestine lying west of the Jordan River. According to a probably biased southern account in 2 Kings 17, the Samaritans were regarded by orthodox Jews as descendants of foreigners who had intermarried with survivors of the northern kingdom's fall to Assyria (721 b.c.e.). Separated from the rest of Judaism after about 400 b.c.e., they had a Bible consisting of their own edition of the Pentateuch (Torah) and a temple on Mount Gerizim, which was later destroyed by John Hyrcanus (128 b.c.e.) (Matt. 10:5; Luke 9:52; John 4:20-21). Jesus discussed correct worship with a woman at Jacob's well in Samaria (John 4:5-42) and made a "good Samaritan" the hero of a famous parable (Luke 10:29-37).
| | | | | Sanhedrin | The supreme judicial council of the Jews from about the third century b.c.e. until the Romans destroyed Jerusalem in 70 c.e., its deliberations were led by the High Priest (2 Chron. 19:5-11). Jesus was tried before the Sanhedrin and condemned on charges of blasphemy (Matt. 26:59; Mark 14:55; 15:1; Luke 22:66; John 11:47). Stephen was stoned as a result of its verdict (Acts 6:12-15). Peter, John, and other disciples were hailed before its court (Acts 4:5-21; 5:17-41), and Paul was charged there with violating the Mosaic Torah (Acts 22).
| | | | | scroll | A roll of papyrus, leather, or parchment such as those on which the Hebrew Bible and New Testament were written. The rolls were made of sheets about nine to eleven inches high and five or six inches wide, sewed together to make a strip up to twenty-five or thirty feet long, which was wound around a stick and unrolled when read (Isa. 34:4; Rev. 6:14; Jer. 36).
| | | | | Socrates | Athenian philosopher (c. 469-399 b.c.e.) and mentor of Plato, he taught that life's purpose was to seek the good and prepare the soul for immortality in the afterlife. After being executed for questioning conventional ideas about the gods, he became the subject of his disciples' memoirs, including very different accounts by Plato and Xenophon.
| | | | | Stoicism | A Greek philosophy that became popular among the upper classes in Roman times, Stoicism emphasized duty, endurance, self-control, and service to the gods, the family, and the state. Its adherents believed in the soul's immortality, rewards, and punishments after death, and in a divine force (providence) that directs human destiny. Paul encountered Stoics when preaching in Athens (Acts 17:18-34), and Stoic ideas appear in Ecclesiastes, the Wisdom of Solomon, Proverbs, John 4:23 and 5:30, James 1:10, and 1 Peter 2:17.
| | | | | Talmud | A huge collection of Jewish religious traditions consisting of two parts: (1) the Mishnah (written editions of ancient oral interpretations of the Torah), published in Palestine by Judah ha-Nasi (died c. 220 c.e.) and his disciples; (2) the Gemara, extensive commentaries on the Mishnah. The Palestinian version of the Talmud, which is incomplete, was produced in about 450 c.e.; the Babylonian Talmud, nearly four times as long, was finished in about 500 c.e. Both Talmuds contain Mishnah and Gemara.
| | | | | Tiberius (Tiberius Claudius Nero) | Stepson of Augustus and second emperor of Rome (14-37 c.e.). According to Luke 3:1, Jesus came to John for baptism in the fifteenth year of Tiberius' reign. Except for Luke 2:1, he is the Caesar referred to in the Gospels (Matt. 22:17; Mark 12:14; Luke 20:22; John 19:12).
| | | | | Titus | A Greek whom Paul converted and who became a companion on his missionary journeys (2 Cor. 8:23; Gal. 2:1-3; Titus 1:4), Titus effected a reconciliation between Paul and the Corinthians (2 Cor. 7:5-7; 8:16-24; 12:18). A post-Pauline writer makes him the type of the Christian pastor (Titus 1-3).
| | | | | Vespasian | The emperor of Rome (69-79 c.e.) who led Roman legions into Judea during the Jewish revolt (66-70 c.e.), the siege of Jerusalem passing to his son Titus when Vespasian became emperor.
| | | | | Zealots | An extremely nationalistic party in first-century Judaism dedicated to freeing Judea from foreign domination, by armed revolt if necessary. Their militarism and fanatical patriotism generated several uprisings, culminating in the great rebellion against Rome (66-73 c.e.). According to Flavius Josephus' possibly biased account, their intransigence led to the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. The Simon of Luke 6:15 and Acts 1:13 is called a "zealot."
| | | | | Zeus | In Greek mythology, the son of Cronus and Rhea, king of the Olympian gods, and patron of civic order. A personification of storm and other heavenly powers, he ruled by wielding the lightning bolt. The Romans identified him with Jupiter (Jove). Some people of Lystra compared Barnabas to Zeus and Paul to Hermes (Acts 14:12). The erection of his statue in the Jerusalem Temple courts helped spark the Maccabean revolt (c. 168 b.c.e.).
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