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  1. The Neuroscience Perspective
    1. Introduction to Neuroscience
      1. Focus on interaction between behavior and organic functions
      2. Mind-body problem--relationship between physical and psychological aspects
    2. Behavior Genetics
      1. Chromosomes contain genetic instructions
      2. More than 2,000 genes are on a single chromosome
      3. Behavior genetics examines genetic influence on behavior
      4. Diathesis-stress model helpful in explaining most genetically influenced disorders
        1. Diathesis refers to constitutional predisposition
        2. Stress combined with diathesis results in abnormal behavior
      5. Clinical Genetic Studies
        1. Genotype is individual combination of genes; phenotype is individual combination of observable characteristics
        2. Family studies used to examine genetic influences
          1. Index case is identified; examine other members of family to determine if they have same disorder
          2. Evidence is only suggestive of genetic transmission since family members share environments
        3. Twin studies compare twins
          1. Monozygotic (MZ) twins develop from single fertilized egg and have same genotype
          2. Dizygotic (DZ) twins develop from two eggs fertilized by two sperm and have half their genes in common
          3. Co-twins examined to determine how many are concordant
          4. Environment is still an important influence since MZ twins are raised more alike than DZ twins
        4. Adoption studies
          1. Attempt to separate the effects of genetics and environmental influences
          2. Mother-child adoption studies are easier to conduct
      6. Molecular Genetic Studies
        1. Molecular genetic studies identify which genes are involved in behavioral disorders
        2. Linkage analysis uses genetic markers as clue in locating gene controlling disorder
    3. The Central Nervous System
      1. Nervous system is vast network extending from brain to rest of body
      2. Central nervous system (CNS) consists of brain and spinal cord
        1. Primarily responsible for storing and transmitting information
        2. If problem in CNS, then problem in behavior
      3. Neurons made up of several structural features (i.e., cell body, dendrites, axon, axon terminals, and myelin sheath)
        1. Impulse from one neuron to the next neuron continues by neurotransmitter
        2. Firing is all-or-none response
        3. Some impulses stimulate the nerve to fire, some inhibit firing
      4. Neurotransmitters
        1. Neurotransmitters are chemicals stored in vesicles
        2. After release, they travel across gap and connect with receptors, as keys fit in locks
        3. During reuptake neurotransmitters are broken down and transported back to the axon terminal
        4. Receptors can change
          1. Decrease in number or sensitivity is called down-regulation
          2. Increase in number or sensitivity is called up-regulation
        5. Several neurotransmitters have been studied
          1. Acetycholine--body muscles, sleep disorders, and Alzheimer's disease
          2. Dopamine--motor behavior, reward, schizophrenia
          3. Enkephalins--act on opiate receptors
          4. GABA--inhibitory effect
          5. Norepinephrine--fight-or-flight response, alertness
          6. Serotonin--role in constraint, depression
        6. Drug treatment
          1. Psychopharmacology studies drug treatment of psychological disorders
          2. Many drugs target neurotransmitters by increasing or suppressing action of neurotransmitter
      5. The Anatomy of the Brain
        1. Cerebral cortex, sulci, gyri, longitudinal fissure, corpus callosum, central sulcus, lateral sulcus; lobes (parietal, frontal, temporal, occipital) thought to have differing functions
        2. Cross-section of brain reveals hypothalamus, limbic structures (e.g., amygdala, hippocampus), thalamus, basal ganglia, cerebellum, pons, medulla, brain stem, reticular activating system, and ventricles
        3. Structures associated with abnormal behaviors
      6. Measuring the Brain
        1. Electroencephalography (EEG) measures general brain activity by giving picture of brain's response to external stimuli
        2. Positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computer tomography (SPECT) measure brain metabolism and function
        3. Computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measure brain structure
        4. Each technique has advantages and disadvantages
      7. Psychosurgery
        1. Surgery designed to reduce abnormal behavior is called psychosurgery
        2. Psychosurgical techniques have been refined,--for example, cingulotomy and stereotactic subcaudate tractotomy
        3. Psychosurgery has been used in treating severe obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, and pain
        4. Psychosurgery is very controversial and is usually the last treatment resort
      8. Lateralization: Effects of Language and Emotion
        1. Lateralization refers to differences between the two hemispheres
        2. Complex cognitive processes involve both hemispheres, yet different aspects are localized
    4. The Peripheral Nervous System: Somatic and Autonomic
      1. Peripheral nervous system is a network leading from CNS to body
        1. Somatic nervous system senses and acts on external world
        2. Autonomic nervous system of special interest to abnormal psychology
      2. Autonomic nervous system controls smooth muscles, glands, and internal organs
        1. Sympathetic division mobilizes body to meet emergencies
        2. Parasympathetic division slows down metabolism and regulates organs so that they can rebuild energy supply
        3. Relationship between divisions is complex, and they work together
    5. The Endocrine System
      1. Endocrine system produces hormones and is involved in many functions
      2. Hypothalamus controls endocrine system
      3. Hormones may be involved in specific psychological disorders such as depression, bipolar disorder, eating disorders, and stress-related disorders
    6. Evaluating the Neuroscience Perspective
      1. Biochemical abnormality may be result not cause of disorder
      2. Not all biological treatments are effective
      3. Ethical issues are raised involving treatment, symptom reduction and its consequences
      4. Cannot consider biogenic and psychogenic causation as either/or





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