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| Psychologists differ on the issue of how much our development is biologically determined (nature) or is shaped by the learning environment (nurture). Today, most psychologists believe that nature and nurture combine to influence our actions, thoughts, and feelings. Research on imprinting in some animals shows that experiences during critical periods of early development can have long-lasting effects on behavior. Research conducted by the Harlows on the effects of early deprivation in monkeys showed the lasting effects of early social deprivation. Opinions are divided regarding the effects of abnormal early experiences in humans. Stage theorists believe that all children pass through the same qualitatively different stages in the same order. For example, Piaget identified four stages of cognitive development from infancy to adulthood. According to Piaget, the process of assimilation adds new information to existing concepts, or schemas, which results in quantitative changes in a child's cognitions. The process of changing schemas in qualitative ways to incorporate new experiences is called accommodation. Piaget's four stages include (1) the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), during which an infant conceptualizes the world in terms of schemas that incorporate sensory information and motor activities; (2) the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), during which children can think in mental images, but exhibit egocentric thinking; (3) the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years), during which children increase their ability to reason logically; and (4) the formal operational stage (11 years on), during which an individual uses full adult logic and can understand abstract concepts. Kohlberg's theory of moral development is concerned with the logical process of arriving at answers to moral dilemmas. Kohlberg's theory proposes the following levels of moral development: (1) the premoral level, when the child has no sense of morality as adults understand the term; (2) the conventional level, when a child's moral view is based on what others will think of him or her; and (3) the principled level, when individuals judge right and wrong according to ethical principles rather than by the consequences of the actions. Gilligan suggests that females progress through three stages of moral development: (1) morality as individual survival, (2) morality as self-sacrifice, and (3) morality as equality. Erikson's theory of personality development suggests that individuals experience eight stages or crises, the outcomes of which will partly determine the future course of personality development. The development of the child proceeds through the following periods: (1) the neonatal period, the first two weeks of life marking the transition from the womb to independent life; (2) infancy, a time of rapid change in physical, perceptual, cognitive, linguistic, social, and emotional development; (3) early childhood, a period of great improvements in the coordination of small and large muscle groups; and (4) middle childhood, during which physical growth is slowed, but important cognitive changes occur, such as the ability to conserve and decenter. Adolescence is the development period from the onset of puberty until the beginning of adulthood. The production of sex hormones in puberty triggers biological changes known as the primary sex characteristics. Menarche, the first menstrual period, occurs in American females at about 12 years and 6 months; males produce sperm about two years later. Within each sex, there is wide variation in the age at which puberty begins. Secondary sex characteristics appear in both sexes during puberty. The adolescent growth spurt lasts for slightly more than a year in early adolescence. In late adolescence weight gain is common due to a decline in the basal metabolism rate. For both sexes different parts of the body grow at different rates, weight and physique change in irregular ways, and many adolescents experience skin problems. According to Piaget, the formal operational stage, which is characterized by the ability to use abstract concepts, occurs in some individuals by about age 11. Peers replace the family as the most important influence on the adolescent. Adolescent emotions are characterized by an increase in parent-child conflict, more mood changes and an increase in risky behavior. Adulthood is not a single phase of life. Challenges involving love, work, and play continue throughout adulthood. Psychologists disagree about whether the changes in adulthood are the result of programmed stages of biological development or are reactions to significant life events, such as starting a job, retiring, marriage, the birth of children, and so on. Intelligence appears stable throughout adulthood in healthy adults. Some relatively positive personality changes that occur for many people during adulthood include becoming more insightful, dependable, and candid. Erikson's developmental theory refers to early adulthood as the stage of intimacy vs. isolation. It is a time during which many individuals enter committed loving relationships. Erikson calls middle adulthood the stage of generativity vs. stagnation, the goal of which is to find meaning in work and family lives. The period from the late 60s and beyond is referred to by Erikson as the stage of integrity vs. despair. According to Erikson, older adults who see meaning in their lives continue to live a satisfying existence. Psychological variables associated with happy aging are staying engaged in life's activities, not believing the myths about old age, and avoiding smoking and excessive drinking. Older adults tend to be less frightened by death than younger adults. Studies by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross suggest that people who learn of their impending death tend to pass through five distinct stages: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Human infants who are securely attached enjoy physical contact with parents and move out quickly to explore; insecurely attached infants, however, cling excessively and are extremely upset by separation from parents. According to Baumrind, the three types of parental discipline styles are authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative. Children and parents are affected by each other's behavior. Research suggests that day-care children do not differ from those raised by others in their own homes in terms of physical health, emotional or intellectual development, or attachment. |