As an undergraduate, and then as a graduate student, I took a total of nine courses in group dynamics. In each course, I always felt a certain sense of discomfort with my inability to get an overall "feel" for the big picture of small group interaction. Each textbook took a different approach, and some approaches would contradict others. Few, if any, of the books had a conceptual model that explained the relationships of all the important variables related to small groups.
As a result, when I began to teach my first small groups course, I had difficulty picking out a textbook. As I studied various group communication texts, I found that all of them covered many of the same topics, such as leadership, communication, and problem solving. I found, however, that the topics were like so many playing cards that could be shuffled and reshuffled to form a book's table of contents. There was no conceptual model that integrated the topics in a meaningful way. It was only when I studied advanced theoretical books on groups that I found conceptual theories and models that did a better job of tying all the important topics together. These books, however, were not intended for beginning undergraduate students. When I tried using them as texts, students were very unhappy with the choices.
At about the same time, I began to study more and more of the literature on organizational behavior. I read the late Rensis Likert's (1967) now-classic text, which organized the variables in that discipline into three categories: (1) causal variables, (2) intervening variables, and (3) end-result variables. This was the closest I had come to finding the conceptualization that made sense. But Likert's model seemed to be lacking, too, as it implied a beginning and an end (e.g., causal, intervening, and end-result variables).
Finally, I found in the general systems literature the missing link, which at that time had never been applied in a small group text. The systems approach advanced the idea that all the various component parts of the model are interrelated and that a change in one often creates changes in other parts of the system. In addition, in an open system, so-called end results are fed back into the beginning of the group and become causal variables for future behaviors.
Over time, I began to develop my own materials (as most professors do) and eventually developed an open systems model of small group interaction (Figure 1.1). This model conceptualized the small group field and could be adapted for a text written for the introductory student. This systems model grew out of the conceptual groundwork that had been laid by several other authors. Figure 1.2 summarizes those authors' models.
The Tubbs Model of Small Group Interaction organizes the important small group variables into three major categories: (1) relevant background factors, (2) internal influences, and (3) consequences. This model offers several advantages over previous introductory books on small group interaction. First, it helps students grasp the conceptual overview that I had not found in books when I was a student. Second, this model shows the dynamic interactive nature of all the variables in the model, and avoids the cause-and-effect thinking of earlier models. Third, it explicitly shows how consequences, or outputs, of one small group experience can become background factors or inputs for the next group experience.
This model is reinforced throughout the text with real-life case studies, student exercises, and carefully selected readings. I hope that this combination of theory and application will be useful to you.
The 2002 movie Blackhawk Down provides an excellent example of the systems model of group behavior. In the movie, a group of American soldiers from various backgrounds work on the task of helping to liberate Somalia from warlords. It illustrates the various relevant background factors of the group members as well as the external forces impacting the group, the dynamic interplay of the many internal influences of the group's workings (e.g., their frequent conflicts), and the ultimate consequences of the group's activities. If you get a chance, rent this film and see how well it illustrates the model on which this book is based.
Chapter 2 discusses (1) communication, (2) language behavior, (3) self-disclosure, and (4) interaction roles. Communication is the most important topic in this book. Thus, we have dedicated a significant amount of coverage to it. Virtually every human behavior has the potential to communicate, and so communication permeates all aspects of group behavior.
Language behavior focuses on the verbal part of communication and the intimate relationship between words and thoughts. This body of knowledge is often referred to as semantics. Chapter 2 includes a discussion of several language-related communication difficulties and practical methods for improvement.Self-disclosure refers to the amount of information we reveal about ourselves to others. Too little self-disclosure results in isolation from others. However, too much self-disclosure with virtual strangers is inappropriate. The contexts of appropriate self-disclosure as a method for personal growth and development are discussed in Chapter 2. Several categories of interaction roles are also discussed in Chapter 2.Relevant Background FactorsRelevant background factors are attributes of the individual participants that existed prior to the group's formation and that will endure in some modified form after the group no longer exists. These background factors influence the group's functioning; in turn, the group process affects the group's outcomes or results.
Let us look at a few of these background factors. Each of us has a distinct personality. The mix of personalities will undoubtedly have some influence on the "chemistry" or working relationships within the group. For example, when filming The Godfather III, Al Pacino and Diane Keaton broke off their long-running relationship, which caused severe setbacks in filming the movie. This illustrates both personality conflict and the influence of sex or gender on the group's functioning. Obviously, any group that includes both sexes involves a very volatile element. In fact, many companies have policies that do not allow husbands and wives to work in the same department. Any time the two sexes interact, there is the potential for romantic relationships to influence the group's functioning.
Age is certainly a factor important to group activities. Age itself is probably not as important as the different attitudes that tend to be associated with different age groups. Therefore, groups containing members of a similar age group tend also to be somewhat more similar or homogenous in attitudes. For example, how different would a group discussion of Eminem be if your parents were in the group?
Health also plays a role in influencing groups. If individuals are suffering from health problems, their energy level and the stamina with which they address problems are often reduced. In one work group, a member who had chronic pneumonia was consistently the most outstanding contributor at each meeting of the group that she was able to attend. However, her frequent health-related absences handicapped the group.
Values also exert a powerful influence in groups. Think about a discussion on the subject of abortion, gun control, or racism. How quickly do the values of the group members come into play and how will they most likely affect both the group's processes and its outcomes? Keep in mind that all six of these relevant background factors are constantly interacting with one another. For example, values and attitudes are closely related, as are age and health, and gender and personality. And all of these factors (except gender) are constantly changing over the course of our human experiences. The relevant background factors are the subject of Chapter 3.INTERNAL INFLUENCES
The second set of variables in the model are internal influences. These factors influence the actual functioning of the group. Imagine how physical environment plays a role when the group meets in a quiet conference room with comfortable furniture compared with meeting in a noisy corner of a room with poor ventilation, heavy cigarette smoke, poor lighting, and a high temperature. Similarly, imagine the way a group interacts when there are only 4 or 5 members as compared with 15 to 20. Typically, the smaller the group, the higher the individual satisfaction of group members with the discussion.
The type of group refers to a group's general nature. A group may be, for example, an educational group, a social group, or a work group. Obviously, each of these would perform differently. Chapter 4 discusses in greater depth the factors of physical environment, group size and structure, and group type.
Chapter 5 is devoted to three very important topics: (1) status and power, (2) leadership, and (3) group norms. Status and power strongly influence group outcomes. If a group such as the president's cabinet is meeting to discuss a problem, obviously, the president has the highest status and resulting power. Similarly, if the Dallas Cowboys are meeting, Troy Aikman and Emmett Smith will have an especially high level of status within the group, and their opinions will most likely be more powerful than those of any other members of the group.
Leadership is probably one of the two most important internal influences, and this book devotes considerable attention to it. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, many people learn how to increase their own leadership skills by studying small group interaction. The trend of the present, and most definitely of the future, is for greater participative leadership that heavily utilizes group interaction. For example, Dumaine (1993) writes: "Managers who master skills such as team building . . . will likely be in the best position to get tomorrow's top corporate jobs. That's because the role of the top executive is becoming more like that of a team player and broker of others' efforts, not that of an autocrat" (p. 81).
The third topic in Chapter 5 is group norms. These are unwritten rules that strongly influence our behaviors. Usually, norms are so much a part of our thinking that we become aware of them only when someone violates them. For example, if someone dresses (or undresses) in a fashion that is completely inappropriate, this violates our sense of what is comfortable (or normal). The pressure to conform to group norms is a powerful influence on every small group.
Chapter 6 covers the important topic of decision making. Many traditional small group books have been exclusively devoted to the topic of decision making. The skills covered in Chapter 6 will serve you throughout your entire lifetime as you solve literally thousands of problems.
Conflict is something all of us experience. Chapter 7 discusses the dynamics of conflict and attempts to better equip you for managing conflicts in your life, especially in small group situations.CONSEQUENCES
Chapter 8 looks at the reasons we engage in small group activities in the first place—that is, the benefits we get from groups. These benefits are the raison d' être of a group, the reason the group was formed. These are (1) solutions to problems, (2) improvements in interpersonal relations, (3) improvements in the flow of information between and among people, and (4) organizational change. Each of these end results, or consequences, of group interaction is a worthwhile goal.
Chapter 9 offers the guidelines for preparing an oral presentation. It also discusses three group formats: (1) the panel discussion, (2) the symposium, and (3) the forum discussion.
Finally, Chapter 10 offers several forms for observing and analyzing small group interaction. This new chapter has been added in response to requests from readers like you.
As you read this book, keep in mind the consequences that are possible. As you focus on what is often referred to as "the bottom line," you will better understand how the systems approach ties all these variables together.SUMMARY
This chapter opened with a gripping look at a tragic real-life example of a small group. This case study showing the outcome of an extreme challenge on the behavior of total strangers illustrates something of both the nature and potential of effective small group management. Incidentally, it illustrates our systems model in that the passengers were able to receive new information through cell phone calls into their "system" (inside the plane) that gave them what they needed to know to decide their ultimate course of action. Without that same information, the passengers on the earlier flights who crashed into the Pentagon and World Trade Center towers had no knowledge of their fate and couldn't thwart the terrorists.
This chapter presented definitions of the language and key terms unique to the study of small groups. The section "Why Study Small Groups?" highlights the many advantages of this area of study. Having laid this initial groundwork, we examined the topics of empowerment and of a conceptual orientation of the small group. The "General Systems Perspective" section looked at some of the theories that have helped categorize the elements of group communications. Drawing from these general philosophies, this textbook is based on a new theory of small group interaction: the Tubbs Model—A Systems Perspective. The Tubbs Model is a conceptual model that illustrates and defines the relationships of all the important variables of the small group.
In the next seven chapters and the accompanying readings, each part of the model is discussed in greater detail: Chapter 2 covers communication processes (an internal influence), Chapter 3 examines relevant background factors, Chapters 4 through 7 are devoted to other internal influences, and Chapter 8 deals with the consequences of small group interaction.
