How do deficit, expectation, and cultural difference theory explain disparate academic performance among various racial, ethnic, and cultural groups?Some people believe that being white has a number of very real, but often invisible, privileges. When it comes to school, however, most Americans believe that schools offer equitable educational opportunities to all children. Yet, both educators and the public agree that some groups perform well in school, and some do not. Various reasons are offered for these academic gaps. Deficit theory argues that poor academic performance is a result of the mismatch between group values and school norms. Expectation theory asserts that teachers' lower expectations of some groups becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. Cultural difference theory states that better understanding and communication between home life and school life can lead to academic success. What major developments have marked the educational history of Native Americans, Hispanics, African Americans, Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders, and Arab Americans?For centuries, the impact of white people on Native Americans has been one of territorial conquest and attempts to diminish the Indian culture, often through schooling. Today, less than half of the 2 million Native Americans in this country live on reservations. The education of African Americans during the colonial period was sometimes illegal, and, when schools were provided, they were inadequate and underfunded. The doctrine of"separate but equal" (Plessy v. Ferguson) legalized segregated schools, but, in 1954 (Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka),"separate but equal" was declared unconstitutional. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed in an effort to eliminate continuing discrimination and promote the desegregation of schools. A second-generation of segregation now persists, due in large part to racially segregated neighborhoods. African American children are often assigned to special education programs and tracked into less challenging academic areas. While there has been considerable improvement, African American students still have lower test scores and higher dropout rates than do white students. There are more than 35 million Hispanics (or Latinos) living in the United States today. The nation's Latinos comprise several major groups, including Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans. Hispanic immigration from Central America, including Nicaragua and El Salvador, is increasing. Students from poverty-stricken countries must overcome psychological trauma, poverty, and language barriers to succeed in the United States. The Hispanic dropout statistics are even higher than those of African Americans. Asian is a broad label assigned to several billion people from a score of nations. Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, especially more recent immigrants from nations in Southeast Asia, must overcome trauma and adjust to a new culture and language, not unlike many Hispanics. Other Asian Americans, such as the Chinese and Asian Indians, are stereotyped as model minorities, a label that often masks the impact of prejudice on these children. Misunderstanding and intolerance have been all-too-common facts of life for three million Americans of Arab descent. Many Americans confuse Arabs and Moslems, mistaking Islam, a religion, with Arabs, a cultural group. Although students of Arab heritage do well in American schools, teacher training, curricular revision, and a greater understanding of these cultural and religious issues are needed if equal educational opportunities are to become a reality for Arab Americans. What educational barriers and breakthroughs have girls and women experienced?For much of this nation's history, females were denied access to schools. Once admitted they were often segregated into gender-restricted programs and careers. Today, researchers find subtle bias in classroom interactions, curriculum materials, and enrollment patterns. Some instructional areas, such as computer technology and vocational programs, remain gender segregated. Title IX of the 1972 Educational Amendments Act prohibits sex discrimination in schools that receive federal financial assistance. Progress toward gender equity is evident by increased female participation in athletics and improved test scores in math and science. Compliance with Title IX remains erratic. What classroom strategies are appropriate for teaching culturally diverse learners?Teachers can create more equitable classrooms through a variety of instructional techniques: ensuring that seating and grouping patterns are not segregated by gender, race or language, varying learning activities, increasing wait-time, using space and eye contact in a culturally sensitive manner, and using materials to meet individual students needs and interests. What impact do changing family patterns and economic issues have on children and schools?Nearly one in six U.S. children lives in poverty, a condition that frequently short-circuits their educational promise. The traditional family unit of the past has undergone a radical transformation. Divorce, remarriage, wage earning, parenting, and alternative relationships have restructured the family and the home-school connection. Latchkey children are those who are left home alone for a significant portion of the day. Latchkey children are found throughout society; the more educated the parent, the more likely there is a latchkey child at home. After-school programs attempt to provide a meaningful (and safe) alternative to being home alone. Passage of the 1987 McKinney Homeless Assistance Act, amended in 1990, was intended to lessen the impact of homelessness on Americans. This law protects the rights of children who have no permanent address to attend school and receive all necessary services and opportunities. How can educators respond to social issues that place children at risk?Today, just over 86 percent of students complete high school. Poor students, urban students, and students of color are more likely to drop out than are others. Reasons for dropping out range from lack of motivation to teenage pregnancy. The mixed messages sent to students in our society have contributed to an alarmingly high rate of teenage pregnancy. Almost one in nine teenage girls becomes pregnant and many are destined for an early end to their educational careers, and ultimately poverty. Current school responses vary according to community norms. In some communities, sex education is a major emphasis; in others, it is minor or missing entirely. Fear of AIDS has served as a catalyst for establishing sex education programs, in hopes of reducing this deadly disease. The courts, contending that AIDS is a disability, do not allow schools to discriminate against students or teachers with HIV. Although substance abuse by teens has generally declined since the 1970s, reports in recent years suggest drug use (especially of alcohol) may again be on the rise. Statistics on the extent of the problem are difficult to quantify and interpret, but, clearly, substance abuse has a devastating impact on the education and health of those involved. While the general incidence of suicide has decreased, the youth rate has tripled in the last quarter century , and warning signs are difficult to detect. Gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth are more likely to commit suicide than are heterosexual youngsters. Guidelines for teachers include taking an active role in recognizing and confronting homophobia across the school culture. An ongoing debate exists over whether equity and excellence in education are compatible. Some claim that efforts for equity drain resources from educational programs and subvert academic excellence. We believe that education cannot be excellent unless it is excellent for all. |