Chapter Overview

Conceptions of the Family

• Families are the social unit with the primary responsibility for preparing (or socializing) the child to be a productive and competent member of society.

• Early theories (psychoanalytic and learning theories) of family socialization focused on the effects of parents on children’s development. Parents were viewed as "all powerful" because they created and shaped the child’s environment. This view of the family is limited.

• A family is a highly complex system of interactions and processes operating at multiple levels. Parents influence children as much as children influence them. Change in any member of the family system can influence other members of the system. The family is also embedded in larger social systems — neighborhoods, communities, and culture — that can affect interactions within family. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of children’s development is an example of a systems approach.

Variations in Family Structures

• The structure of families is changing. Whereas most children grow up in two-parent families, there is an increasing number of children being raised in single-parent families. The majority of these families are headed by single mothers who face a number of challenges and difficulties. Single fathers tend to face fewer economic hardships.

• Children from single-parent families tend to be less successful in school than children from two-parent families. Girls from single-parent families may show an early onset of sexual activity. The presence of economic resources and other adults in the household can offset the negative consequences of a single-parent family.

• There are few differences between homosexual and heterosexual parents. Chidlren of gay and lesbian parents exhibit relations with peers and adults, and they resemble children of heterosexual parents on measure of social competence, self-concept, locus of control, and moral judgment.

Ethnic Diversity of Families

• African Americans currently represent the largest minority group in the United States. Child-rearing practices in African-American families tend to emphasize assertiveness, independence, and self-confidence. There are more egalitarian gender roles, and African American derive support and resources from the extended family.

• The number of Hispanic-American families is steadily growing. These families tend to be larger, but divorce rates are low. Child-rearing practices in Hispanic-American families emphasize interdependence, family obligation, conformity, and cooperation.

• Asian-American families also emphasize the importance of social harmony and interdependence. The child is taught patience, perseverance, restraint, and humility. Asian-American children are expected to do well in school to bring honor to the family.

• The traditions of Native American families differ by tribal identity. Yet most families value harmony and connectedness. The entire Native American community plays a role in raising children. Children are expected to show great respect for the past and for their elders.

Family Influence on Development

• The family environment can be characterized in terms of differences in warmth, responsiveness, and control. These dimensions form constellations of parenting behaviors, called parenting styles. There are four types of parenting styles: authoritarian (high control, low warmth/responsiveness); authoritative (high control; high warmth/responsiveness); permissive-indulgent (low control, high warmth/responsiveness), and permissive-indifferent (low control, low warmth/responsiveness).

• Authoritative parenting is associated with the most positive outcomes for children. Children of authoritative parents are self-reliant, socially responsible, and perform well in school. Children with authoritarian parents have lower self-esteem and lower achievement than children with authoritative parents. Children with permissive-indifferent parents have the most negative profile of all.

• Relationships between children and parents change over the course of development. In early development, children are mainly controlled and regulated by parents. There is a gradual shift toward coregulation during middle childhood, whereby control is shared by parents and children. In adolescence, young people strive for independence. This period is generally characterized by conflict until parent and child roles are renegotiated.

• Sibling relationships play a unique and important role in children’s development. Siblings serve as role models, playmates, teachers, and sources of emotional support. Like parent-child relations, sibling relationships change with development. Children whose parents are warm and responsive tend to develop positive sibling relationships.

• Child maltreatment can take many different forms, including physical abuse, neglect, emotional maltreatment, and sexual abuse. Younger children are at greater risk for maltreatment than are older children. A number of social and economic factors contribute to child abuse, including poor parental education, family poverty and conflict, and social isolation. Child abuse has serious cognitive, emotional, and social consequences for the child, and, in some cases, it can lead to death. Federal and state laws require all professional who work with children to report suspected cases of child abuse. It is important for educators to learn about reporting procedures.

Family Transitions: Divorce and Remarriage

• Approximately half of first marriages end in divorce. The effects of divorce on a child are not straightforward and are related to the child’s age and sex, the level of conflict between parents, the income level of the custodial parent, and the quality of the parenting provided. In general, most children are not adversely affected by divorce, despite the significant problems they face during the transition.

• Many children live in a blended family consisting of a biological parent, a stepparent, and children. The remarriage of a parent has both positive and negative consequences for the child. On the one hand, it brings added resources and support to the family, but, on the other hand, it requires further adjustment for children who may still be reconciling issues raised by their parents’ divorce. As with divorce, the effects of remarriage are shaped by the child’s characteristics and the quality of parenting provided.

• The school can provide continuity of care and stability for children experiencing a change in the family. During a family transition, young people will need extra support, attention, and care at school. It is important to maintain consistent rules and routines, and to provide opportunities for children to discuss their feelings.

Maternal Employment and Child Care

• More mothers with children under the age of 18 are working outside the home than ever before. Most studies show no effects related to maternal employment on children’s development. Negative effects are likely to occur when maternal employment is associated with decreased monitoring of children’s activities.

• A large number of children under the age of 6 receive some form of early child care, with approximately one-third attending a day care center. Early findings on the effects of day care were equivocal. Recently, new evidence shows few negative effects of day care on children’s development when children attend high-quality day care programs. Quality is defined in terms of a low ratio of children to caregivers; a well-trained staff; opportunities for educational, language, and social stimulation; and low staff turnover.

• Many school-age children today also attend some form of after-school program. These programs are offered by churches, community organizations, and public facilities. Many programs are also offered by school, but some experts are concerned that school care is neglecting important areas of youth development. A limited body of research suggests that school-based programs can result in improved school attendance and achievement, particularly for low-income children.

Family Involvement in Children’s Education

• There is general agreement that active parental involvement in education is important for children’s school success. When parents become involved in school activities, they devise ways of supporting their children’s learning at home. Through increased contact with parents, teachers can increase their understanding of their students’ cultural backgrounds, needs, and strengths.

• Parent involvement varies by family structure and grade level. Two-parent families are more involved in their children’s schooling than single parents. Also, rates of parent involvement are higher for younger than for older students. Parental beliefs and attitudes play an important role in determining whether or not parents will become involved in their child’s schooling.

• The organization of schools and teacher attitudes can discourage parental involvement. Many teachers report they have insufficient time to implements effective practices for working wit parents, and high school teachers are less likely to perceive the value of parental involvement in their students.

• A number of effective parent involvement strategies have been identified. These include enhancing parenting skills, communicating regularly and effectively with parents, recruiting classroom volunteers, encouraging parents to help their children with learning at home, and including parents in school governance.

• Schools play an important role in fostering resiliency in youth. Any effort that enhances children’s cognitive abilities, social competence, and self-esteem is resiliency building. Schools can foster resiliency by encouraging a strong connection to school, communicating high expectations, providing meaningful learning opportunities, and encouraging participation.