 |  The Police in America, 4/e Samuel Walker,
University of Nebraska
Charles M. Katz,
Arizona State University-West
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(If you do not have Adobe Acrobat reader on your computer, you may download it for free at:
http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/readstep2.html)PREFACEPART I FOUNDATIONS1 Police and Society
INTRODUCTION:WHY POLICE?
The Goals of This Book
Myths, Realities, and Possibilities
MYTHS ABOUT POLICING
Sources of the Crime-Fighter Image
Consequences of the Crime-Fighter Image
THE REALITIES OF POLICING
Factors That Shape the Police Role
The Authority to Use Force
The Police and Social Control
The Police and Social Control Systems
POSSIBILITIES
Functional Specialization
Problem-Oriented Policing
Community Policing
Zero-Tolerance Policing
Honest Law Enforcement
THE IMPLICATIONS OF CHANGE
SUMMARY
CASE STUDY:REALITY-BASED POLICE TELEVISION:DO THESE PROGRAMS DISTORT REALITY?2 The History of the American Police
INTRODUCTION
THE RELEVANCE OF HISTORY
THE ENGLISH HERITAGE
Creation of the Modern Police:London, 1829
LAW ENFORCEMENT IN COLONIAL AMERICA
The Quality of Colonial Law Enforcement
THE FIRST MODERN AMERICAN POLICE
AMERICAN POLICING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, 1834--1900
Personnel Standards
Patrol Work
The Police and the Public
Corruption and Politics
The Failure of Police Reform
The Impact of the Police on Society
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY:THE ORIGINS OF POLICE PROFESSIONALISM, 1900--1930
The Professionalization Movement
The Reform Agenda
The Impact of Professionalization
The New Police Subculture
Police and Racial Minorities
New Law Enforcement Agencies
THE NEW COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY
NEW DIRECTIONS IN POLICE ADMINISTRATION, 1930--1960
The Wickersham Commission Report
Professionalization Continues
J. Edgar Hoover and the War on Crime
THE POLICE CRISIS OF THE 1960s
The Cops and the Supreme Court
The Cops and Civil Rights
The Police in the National Spotlight
The Research Revolution
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN POLICING, 1970--2000
The Changing Police Officer
The Control of Police Discretion
Police Unions
Citizen Oversight of Police
Community Policing and Problem-Oriented Policing
Race and Ethnic Conflict Continues
SUMMARY:THE LESSONS OF THE PAST
CASE STUDY:POLICE PATROL PRACTICES3 The Contemporary Law Enforcement Industry
INTRODUCTION
Basic Features of American Law Enforcement
An "Industry" Perspective
An International Perspective
A DEFINITION OF TERMS
What Is a Law Enforcement Agency?
Who Is a Police Officer?
SIZE AND SCOPE OF THE LAW ENFORCEMENT INDUSTRY
The Number of Law Enforcement Agencies
The Number of Law Enforcement Personnel
Understanding Law Enforcement Personnel Data
Civilianization
The Police--Population Ratio
The Cost of Police Protection
MUNICIPAL POLICE
County Police
THE COUNTY SHERIFF
The Role of the Sheriff
OTHER LOCAL AGENCIES
The Constable
The Coroner
Special District Police
Campus Police
NATIVE AMERICAN TRIBAL POLICE
STATE LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES
Roles and Responsibilities
FEDERAL LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES
Roles and Responsibilities
THE PRIVATE SECURITY INDUSTRY
THE FRAGMENTATION ISSUE
Alternatives to Fragmentation
The Fragmentation Problem Reconsidered
MINIMUM STANDARDS:AMERICAN STYLE
The Role of the Federal Government
The Role of State Governments
Accreditation
SUMMARY
CASE STUDY:SPECIAL DISTRICT POLICE:THE NEW YORK CITY TRANSIT POLICEPART II POLICE WORK4 Patrol:The Backbone of Policing
INTRODUCTION
THE CENTRAL ROLE OF PATROL
FUNCTIONS OF PATROL
ORGANIZATION AND DELIVERY OF PATROL
Number of Sworn Officers
Allocation and Distribution of Officers to Patrol
Assignment to Shifts and Areas
"Hot Spots"
Types of Patrol
Foot Patrol
One-Officer versus Two-Officer Cars
Staffing Patrol Beats
STYLES OF PATROL
Individual Styles
Supervisors' Styles
Organizational Styles
PATROL SUPERVISION
The Role of the Sergeant
HOW MUCH ACTUAL POLICE PROTECTION?A SUMMARY
THE COMMUNICATIONS CENTER
The Nerve Center of Policing
911 Systems
Processing Calls for Service
THE SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF POLICE PATROL
THE CALL SERVICE WORKLOAD
The Volume of Calls
Types of Calls
ASPECTS OF PATROL WORK
Response Time
Officer Use of Patrol Time
Evasion of Duty
High-Speed Pursuits
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PATROL
Initial Experiments
The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment
Findings and Implications
The Newark Foot Patrol Experiment
New Questions, New Approaches
IMPROVING PATROL
Differential Response to Calls
Telephone Report Units
311 Nonemergency Numbers
Non-English 911 Call Services
Reverse 911
Computers and Video Cameras in Patrol Cars
Police Aides or Cadets
Directed Patrol and "Hot Spots"
Beyond Traditional Patrol
SUMMARY
CASE STUDY:KANSAS CITY (MO) GUN EXPERIMENT (EXCERPT)5 Peacekeeping and Order Maintenance
INTRODUCTION
The Police Role
CALLING THE POLICE
Public Expectations
Police Response
TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT
Drunk-Driving Crackdowns
POLICING DOMESTIC DISPUTES
Defining Our Terms
The Prevalence of Domestic Violence
Calling the Police
Danger to Police?
POLICE RESPONSE TO DOMESTIC DISTURBANCES
Factors Influencing the Arrest Decision
A Revolution in Policing:Mandatory Arrest
The Impact of Arrest on Domestic Violence
Impact of Mandatory Arrest Laws and Policies
Other Laws and Policies
The Future of Domestic Violence Policy
POLICING VICE
Prostitution
Gambling
POLICING THE HOMELESS
The Old Homeless Problem
The New Homeless Problem
Police and the Chronic Alcoholic
POLICING THE MENTALLY ILL
Police Response to the Mentally Ill
Old Problems/New Programs
POLICING PEOPLE WITH AIDS
POLICING JUVENILES
Controversy over the Police Role
Specialized Juvenile Units
On-the-Street Encounters
The Issue of Race Discrimination
Crime Prevention Programs
SUMMARY
CASE STUDY:WESTMINSTER, CALIFORNIA, POLICE DEPARTMENT'S SHIELD PROGRAM6 The Police and Crime
INTRODUCTION
THE POLICE AND CRIME
Crime Control Strategies
Crime Control Assumptions
Measuring Effectiveness
Summary
PREVENTING CRIME
APPREHENDING CRIMINALS
Citizen Reporting of Crime
Reporting and Unfounding Crimes
CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
Myths about Detective Work
The Organization of Detective Work
THE INVESTIGATION PROCESS
The Preliminary Investigation
Arrest Discretion
Follow-Up Investigations
The Reality of Detective Work
Case Screening
MEASURING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
The Clearance Rate
Defining an Arrest
SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN SOLVING CRIMES
Eyewitness Identification
Criminalistics
Officer Productivity
The Problem of Case Attrition
IMPROVING CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS
Targeting Career Criminals
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIVE TECHNIQUES
Undercover Police Work
Informants
POLICING DRUGS
Drug Enforcement Strategies
Retail Drug Enforcement
Minorities and the War on Drugs
Demand Reduction:The D.A.R.E. Program
New Approaches to Drug Enforcement
POLICING GANGS AND GANG-RELATED CRIME
Gang Suppression
Gang Prevention:The G.R.E.A.T. Program
POLICING GUNS AND GUN CRIMES
The Kansas City Gun Experiment
POLICING HATE CRIME
The Scope and Nature of Hate Crime
The Police Response to Hate Crime
CURRENT PROBLEMS FACING LAW ENFORCEMENT
School Crime
Terrorism
Computer Crime
SUMMARY
CASE STUDY:RECENT INNOVATIONS IN GANG VIOLENCE REDUCTION7 Innovations in Policing
INTRODUCTION
IMPETUS FOR CHANGE IN POLICING
THE ROOTS OF COMMUNITY POLICING:THE BROKEN WINDOWS HYPOTHESIS
Types of Disorder
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNITY POLICING
Community Partnerships
The Effectiveness of Community Partnerships
Organizational Change
Evidence of Organizational Change
Problem Solving
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER:IMPLEMENTING COMMUNITY POLICING AT THE DEPARTMENT LEVEL
Chicago's Alternative Policing Strategy (CAPS) Program
COMMUNITY POLICING:PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
Rhetoric or Reality?
Too Rapid Expansion
A Legitimate Police Role
A Political Police?
Decentralization and Accountability
Conflicting Community Interests
THE ROOTS OF PROBLEM-ORIENTED POLICING
THE PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS
Scanning
Analysis
Response
Assessment
EFFECTIVENESS OF PROBLEM-ORIENTED POLICING
Problem-Oriented Policing in Newport News
SMART in Oakland
The Boston Gun Project:Operation Cease Fire
Problem-Oriented Policing in Jersey City, New Jersey
CHARACTERISTICS OF ZERO-TOLERANCE POLICING
The Effectiveness of Zero-Tolerance Policing
Potential Problems with Zero-Tolerance Policing
SUMMARY:THE NEW ERA IN POLICING?
CASE STUDY:ADDRESSING REPEAT CALLS FOR SERVICE IN SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA:PROBLEM-ORIENTED POLICING IN ACTIONPART III POLICE PROBLEMS8 Police Discretion
INTRODUCTION
DISCRETION IN POLICE WORK
A DEFINITION OF DISCRETION
ASPECTS OF POLICE DISCRETION
Street-Level Bureaucrats
Potential Abuse of Discretion
Positive Uses of Discretion
DECISION POINTS AND DECISION MAKERS
Patrol Officer Decisions
Order Maintenance Decisions
Criminal Investigation Decisions
Law Enforcement Policy Decisions
UNDERLYING SOURCES OF POLICE DISCRETION
The Nature of the Criminal Law
The Work Environment of Policing
Limited Police Resources
FACTORS INFLUENCING DISCRETIONARY DECISIONS
Situational Factors
Police--Citizen Interactions
The Neighborhood Environment
Characteristics of the Individual Officer
Official Department Policy
Informal Organizational Culture
Local Political Culture
THE CONTROL OF DISCRETION
The Need for Control
Abolishing Discretion
Enhancing Professional Judgment
Bureaucracy and the Control of Discretion
Written Policies
ADMINISTRATIVE RULEMAKING
Examples of Administrative Rulemaking
Principles of Administrative Rulemaking
Advantages of Written Rules
The Impact of Administrative Rulemaking
Ensuring Compliance with Rules
Codifying Rules:The Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) Manual
Systematic Rulemaking
The Limits of Administrative Rulemaking
SUMMARY
CASE STUDY:"BROKEN WINDOWS" AND POLICE DISCRETION9 Police--Community Relations
INTRODUCTION
A DEFINITION OF POLICE--COMMUNITY RELATIONS
Different Racial and Ethnic Groups
A Changing Multicultural Society
Definitions of Race and Ethnicity
Gender and Sexual Preference
DISCRIMINATION VERSUS DISPARITY
A CONTEXTUAL APPROACH TO POLICE--CITIZEN INTERACTIONS
PUBLIC OPINION AND THE POLICE
Racial and Ethnic Differences
Attitudes about Police Use of Force
Race and Class
Age
Intercity Variations
The Impact of Controversial Incidents
The Detroit Exception
Expectations about Police Performance
The Police and the Larger Society
Police and Other Occupations
Summary
POLICE PERCEPTIONS OF CITIZENS
Sources of Police Attitudes
SOURCES OF POLICE--COMMUNITY RELATIONS PROBLEMS
LEVEL OF POLICE PROTECTION
Inadequate Police Protection
Underprotection versus Overenforcement
POLICE FIELD PRACTICES
Deadly Force
Use of Physical Force
Arrest
Traffic Stops:"Driving While Black" and "Driving While Brown"
Sex Discrimination:"Driving While Female"
Field Interrogations and Searches
Being "Out of Place" and Getting Stopped
Conflicting Evidence
The Heart of the Problem:Crime Fighting, Stereotyping, Race, and Ethnicity
Verbal Abuse and Racial and Ethnic Slurs
Canine Units
Delay in Responding to Calls
Abuse of Gay Men, Lesbians, and Transgendered Persons
Summary
ADMINISTRATIVE PRACTICES
Handling Citizen Complaints
POLICE EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES
Employment Discrimination
The Goals of Equal Employment Opportunity
Signs of Progress
Employing Newly Arrived Ethnic Groups
Does the Color of the Officer Make a Difference?
IMPROVING POLICE--COMMUNITY RELATIONS
Special Police--Community Relations Units
Race Relations and Human Relations Training
Language Training for Non-English Speakers
"Best Practices" in Policing
Community Policing and Improving PCR
SUMMARY
CASE STUDY:RESPONDING TO COMMUNITY CRISES:THE U.S. COMMUNITY RELATIONS SERVICE10 Police Corruption
INTRODUCTION
A DEFINITION OF POLICE CORRUPTION
THE COSTS OF POLICE CORRUPTION
TYPES OF CORRUPTION
Gratuities
Bribes
Theft and Burglary
Internal Corruption
Corruption and Brutality
LEVELS OF CORRUPTION
Type I:Rotten Apples and Rotten Pockets
Type II:Pervasive Unorganized Corruption
Type III:Pervasive Organized Corruption
THEORIES OF POLICE CORRUPTION
Individual Officer Explanations
Social Structural Explanations
The Nature of Police Work
The Police Organization
The Police Subculture
BECOMING CORRUPT
The Moral Careers of Individual Officers Corrupting Organizations
CONTROLLING CORRUPTION
INTERNAL CORRUPTION CONTROL STRATEGIES
The Attitude of the Chief
Rules and Regulations
Managing Anticorruption Investigations
Investigative Tactics
Cracking the "Blue Curtain"
Proactive Integrity Tests
Effective Supervision
Rewarding the Good Officers
Personnel Recruitment
EXTERNAL CORRUPTION CONTROL APPROACHES
Special Investigations
Criminal Prosecution
Mobilizing Public Opinion
Altering the External Environment
The Limits of Anticorruption Efforts
SUMMARY
CASE STUDY: POLICE INTEGRITY---NEW ORLEANS STYLE11 Accountability of the Police
INTRODUCTION
A DEFINITION OF ACCOUNTABILITY
BASIC ISSUES IN POLICE ACCOUNTABILITY
What, How, and to Whom?
The "Three E's"
The Dilemmas of Policing in a Democracy
A Historical Perspective on Accountability
ACCOUNTABILITY FOR WHAT THE POLICE DO
The Traditional Approach
New Measures of Police Service
COMPSTAT:A New Approach
ACCOUNTABILITY FOR HOW THE POLICE DO THEIR JOB
INTERNAL MECHANISMS OF ACCOUNTABILITY
SUPERVISION
Routine Supervision
The Impact of Organizational Culture
Close Supervision
Written Policies and Reporting Requirements
Performance Evaluations
INTERNAL AFFAIRS UNITS
The "Code of Silence"
Early Warning Systems
ACCREDITATION
EXTERNAL MECHANISMS OF ACCOUNTABILITY
The Political Process
THE COURTS
The Supreme Court and the Police
The Impact of Supreme Court Decisions
Civil Suits against the Police
"Pattern or Practice" Suits
Injunctions
Criminal Prosecution
Summary
CRIMINAL OVERSIGHT OF THE POLICE
Forms of Citizen Oversight
The Roles of Citizen Oversight
Citizen Review:Pro and Con
Blue-Ribbon Commissions
The News Media
Public Interest Groups
A MIXED APPROACH TO POLICE ACCOUNTABILITY
SUMMARY
CASE STUDY:MIAMI--DADE POLICE DEPARTMENT, EARLY IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (EXCERPT)PART IV OFFICERS AND ORGANIZATIONS12 Police Officers
I:Entering Police Work
INTRODUCTION
The Changing American Police Officer
ASPECTS OF THE PERSONNEL PROCESS
A Career Perspective
Beyond Stereotypes of Cops
The Personnel Process:A Shared Responsibility
RECRUITMENT
Minimum Qualifications
Recruitment Effort
CHOOSING LAW ENFORCEMENT AS A CAREER
Motivations
People Who Do Not Apply
SELECTION
Selection Tests
Oral Interviews
Background Investigations
PREDICTING WHO WILL BE GOOD OFFICERS
EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY
The Law of Equal Employment Opportunity
Job-Related Qualifications
Employment of Racial and Ethnic Minorities
Hispanic or Latino Officers
Women in Policing
Barriers to Women in Policing
Gay and Lesbian Officers
Employment Discrimination Litigation
THE AFFIRMATIVE ACTION CONTROVERSY
The Law of Affirmative Action
The Issue of Quotas
TRAINING
Police Academy Training
Field Training
State Training and Certification
Shortcomings of Current Police Training
THE PROBATIONARY PERIOD
SUMMARY
CASE STUDY:EXCERPT FROM THE PRESIDENT'S COMMISSION ON LAW ENFORCEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE, THE CHALLENGE OF CRIME IN A FREE SOCIETY13 Police Officers II:On the Job
INTRODUCTION
REALITY SHOCK:ENTERING POLICE WORK
Encountering Citizens
Encountering the Justice System
Encountering the Department
THE SENIORITY SYSTEM
POLICE OFFICER ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR
The Concept of a Police Subculture
Criticisms of the Police Subculture Concept
THE CHANGING RANK AND FILE
Women Police Officers
Female Officers and the Use of Force
African American Officers
Hispanic/Latino Officers
Race, Ethnicity, and Performance
Gay and Lesbian Officers
The Intersection of Race, Gender, and Sexual Identity
Education
Cohort Effects
Attitudes toward Community Policing
Summary
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR
STYLES OF POLICE WORK
CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Promotion
Salaries and Benefits
Assignment to Special Units
Lateral Entry
PEFORMANCE EVALUATION
Traditional Performance Evaluation Systems
Problems with Performance Evaluations
JOB SATISFACTION AND JOB STRESS
Sources of Stress
Coping with Stress
THE RIGHTS OF POLICE OFFICERS
Officers' Rights versus Accountability
OUTSIDE EMPLOYMENT
TURNOVER:LEAVING POLICE WORK
SUMMARY
CASE STUDY:NATIONAL CENTER FOR WOMEN AND POLICING (EXCERPT)14 Police Organizations
INTRODUCTION
THE QUASI-MILITARY STYLE OF POLICE ORGANIZATIONS
Criticisms of the Quasi-Military Style
POLICE DEPARTMENTS AS ORGANIZATIONS
The Dominant Style of American Police Organizations
Police Organizations as Bureaucracies
The Problems with Bureaucracy
PROBLEMS WITH POLICE ORGANIZATIONS
The Positive Contributions of Bureaucracy in Policing
Informal Aspects of Police Organizations
BUREAUCRACY AND POLICE PROFESSIONALISM
CHANGING POLICE ORGANIZATIONS
Community Policing
Total Quality Management
Task Forces
Creating Learning Organizations
COMPSTAT
CIVIL SERVICE
POLICE UNIONS
Aspects of Police Unions
Collective Bargaining
Grievance Procedures
Unions and Shared Governance
Impasse Settlement and Strikes
Impact of Police Unions
POLICE ORGANIZATIONS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
Contingency Theory
Institutional Theory
Resource Dependency Theory
SUMMARY
CASE STUDY:UNION INFLUENCE IN THE LOWELL, MASSACHUSETTS, POLICE DEPARTMENT
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2002 McGraw-Hill Higher Education