LECTURE OUTLINE: SELECTING AND INTEGRATING TECHNOLOGY INTO THE CLASSROOM
Historical Background
The computer has many purposes in the classroom, and it can be utilized to help a student in all areas of the curriculum.
Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) refers to the use of the computer as a tool to facilitate and improve instruction.
CAI programs use tutorials, simulation, drill and practice, problem solving approaches, and instructional games to present topics.
CAI programs allow students to progress at their own pace and assist them in learning material.
1950, MIT scientists designed a flight simulator program for combat pilots, the first example of CAI.
1959, IBM developed its CAI technology for elementary schools, and Florida State University offered CAI courses in statistics and physics.
About 1959, John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz of Dartmouth College created BASIC, Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code, which provided a programming language for CAI.
the early 1960s, CAI programs ran on large mainframe computers and were primarily used in reading and mathematics instruction, with computer programmers also producing simulation programs.
The invention of the microcomputer led to the development of improved instructional software and to a resurgence of interest in classroom computer usage because of public demand and the competition among companies.
Tutorial Programs
A tutorial tutors by interactive means, by having a dialogue with the student.
The tutorial asks questions and makes decisions based on the student's response.
The computer decides whether to offer new material, review past information, or provide remediation.
The computer can act as a teacher's assistant by helping the learner with special needs or a student with absences.
The computer tutorial is efficient, gives individual attention, and allows students to progress at their own rate.
The computer tutorial should be interesting, easy to follow, and enhance learning with sound and graphics.
The computer tutorial should have sound educational objectives, regulate the instructional pace, and provide tests to measure the student's progress.
CAI tutorials are based on the principles of programmed learning, with students receiving feedback and each tutorial lesson as a series of frames, with each frame posing a question for the student.
The linear tutorial presents the student with a series of frames, each of which supplies new information or reinforces the information learned in previous frames and must be responded to by the student.
The branching tutorial allows more flexibility than the linear tutorial in the way material is covered, as the computer decides what material to present to the student, based on the student's responses.
Many tutorial programs exist, spanning the gamut of software, including Math Advantage, High School Advantage, and Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing.
Simulation Programs
Students take risks in simulation programs without facing real-life consequences.
Students can use simulations to perform and repeat experiments.
Students can apply classroom learning in more realistic situations with simulations.
Oregon Trail is a classic example of a simulation program, allowing the user to simulate a journey on the Oregon Trail, with various conditions and hardships.
Virtual Labs: Light and Virtual Labs: Electricity are simulation programs that let students safely run virtual laser experiments that would be dangerous and impractical in the real world.
Decisions, Decisions is a simulation social studies software program that focuses on various areas of social studies.
Drill and Practice Programs
1963, Patrick Suppes and Richard Atkinson produced drill and practice software on a mainframe computer.
Drill and practice software displays a problem on the screen, gets a student response, and gives immediate feedback.
the 1970s, the microcomputer began to be widely produced, and drill and practice software accounted for 75% of all educational software developed at the time.
the 1980s, educators argued that drill and practice software was overused and did not stimulate higher-order thinking.
Today's drill and practice software is more sophisticated and frees teachers and students to do more creative work in the classroom.
Drill and practice software differs from tutorial software in that it helps students utilize and remember skills they have previously been taught, while tutorials teach new material.
The typical drill and practice program design includes four steps.
The computer presents the student with questions to respond to or problems to solve.
The student responds.
The computer informs the student whether the answer is correct.
The student is given a new problem to solve if s/he is right, or a corrected answer if s/he is wrong.
Drill and practice programs handle incorrect responses in many ways, including telling students to try again, beeping, displaying the correct response, or giving hints.
Quarter Mile is a competitive car racing game for mathematics.
GeoSafari uses a game show format for science with questions based on animals.
Problem-solving programs are a good way to develop problem-solving skills in a complex world.
A variety of computer programs focus on higher order thinking, such as ClueFinders Reading Adventures and Where in the World is Carmen San Diego?
Intellectum Plus, which incorporates Artificial Intelligence features, produces a series of interactive problem solving programs that address elementary physics concepts, appropriate for junior high school to adult levels.
Game programs usually involve fantasy situations with some sort of competition, and are classified as either entertainment or educational software, with the game serving as motivation, and the major goal being to play the game.
Most CAI programs use a game format that ranges from drill and practice to logic programs, for example, Reader Rabbit's Complete Learn to Read with Phonics for primary grades.
The program VisiFrog helps students master the virtual dissection and anatomy of a frog.
Many educators believe that CAI programs should be designed as games, because games are popular and involve active mental and physical participation of the players.
Most CAI programs incorporate more than one kind of software in their design, combining elements of tutorials, drill and practice, simulations, and games.
Subject Area Software
Thousands of quality educational software programs exist. See Appendix A for a list of subject area software.
art, The World's Greatest Museum software teaches students about artistic masterpieces.
math, drill and practice programs such as MindTwisters, HotDog Stand Top Dog, and many other math programs are based on technology standards developed by the National Council for Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM).
music, there has been a resurgence of interest in music programs such as Piano Discovery System, eMedia Intermediate Guitar Method, PlayMusic, and Music Ace that give students instruction in playing music and music appreciation, composition, and theory.
science, computer advances have led to more schools incorporating science education software into their curriculum, such as BioTutor, ChemTutor, and PhysicsTutor.
social studies, application software such as New Millennium World Atlas and TimeLiner helps students integrate other information into the social studies program, while a unique program called Talking Walls lets students in grades 4-8 explore the stories behind the world's most spectacular walls.
language arts, programs are available for writing, spelling, grammar, reading and reference tools, and more. See the Computer Lab CD-ROM and Appendix A for a list of language arts titles.
applications for students with special needs, the computer serves many important roles. See Chapter 13 for a discussion of technology for special education.
Computer-Managed Instruction
CMI differs from CAI in that it focuses on the needs of teachers, helping them manage the learning of students.
The computer in CMI manages instruction, keeps track of student test scores, attendance records and schedules, and offers diagnostic-perspective instruction in all curriculum areas.
CMI is based on the underlying principle that all students can learn, if they proceed at their own pace and are given instructions and materials.
CMI can be a comprehensive program for one or more areas of the curriculum.
the beginning of most CMI programs, students take a pretest to pinpoint areas of weakness, then are given a prescription for seeing the teacher and getting a customized program, with status reports available for the teacher.
Examples of CMI programs are Math Arena Advanced and Kaplan SAT and PSAT.
Elements of CMI are being incorporated into drill and practice and tutorial software.
CMI has increased in popularity because of the No Child Left Behind Law of 2002, which emphasizes accountability and testing in public schools and attempts to close the gap between performing and underperforming schools.
Integrated Learning Systems (ILS)
ILS is a combination of computer-managed instruction and computer-assisted instruction.
Software companies refer to ILS as a one-package educational software solution to teachers' problems, as it gives students diagnostic data and instruction based on the data, then monitors the student's performance and makes changes in instruction when needed.
ILS usually requires its own file server to store the different types of programs and recordkeeping software.
Examples of ILS programs are ClassWorks High School, Math Skill Navigator, and Language Arts Navigator.
ILS is sound but, in practice, poses some problems.
A common complaint is the difficulty of setting up the management module for students.
Some researchers believe ILS use reduces the interaction between teacher and student.
ILS only tests basic skills, using such instruments as multiple choice and true/false questions.
ILS can be costly in terms of integrated learning system costs and requirements for considerable access to computers.
ILS's capability to test student performance and provide prescriptions for learning has been questioned.
ILS has not been adequately researched, and its results are inconclusive.
Public Domain Software, Freeware, and Shareware
Public domain software offers an affordable alternative to commercial software.
Public domain software can be legally copied and shared with other users with no restrictions on use.
Public domain software is not copyrighted, as authors choose not to seek formal rights or royalties.
Public domain software is distributed by electronic bulletin board services (BBBs) and software vendors, or downloaded from a commercial service such as America Online or from the Internet.
Public domain software can be useful, as professional programmers and teachers write these programs in their free time.
Freeware is like public domain software, because the user obtains it at no charge, but the person or company that developed the software retains the ownership and can release new, fee-based versions.
Shareware in thousands of titles is software distributed on a trial basis through Web sites, BBBs, online services, and mail-order vendors; may be purchased once a user registers to use it; and may or may not be copyrighted.
Software Selection: A General Guide
Choosing good software is an eight-step process. See the software evaluation checklist on p. 599 and Appendix E for a list of recommended mail-order software sources.
Determine the specific needs of the user population.
Locate software and software reviews through journals, indexes, educational organizations, magazines, software house catalogs, and the Internet.
Determine hardware compatibility in terms of memory, speed, storage capacity, and equipment.
Determine program content such as objectives and age-appropriate activities.
Consider instructional design factors such as learner control, reinforcement, sequencing, flexibility, and appearance.
Learner control addresses who controls the program, the student or the computer.
Reinforcement addresses how students are reinforced and rewarded for responses.
Sequencing addresses whether instruction occurs in an effective order.
Flexibility addresses whether the program can be adapted to small and large groups.
Program appearance addresses the appeal of graphics, animation, and sound.
Ease of use should be considered in how easy the program is to learn and use, with simple commands and accessible help screens.
Consumer value or cost should be considered, as some programs cost thousands of dollars and may be purchased as lab packs, networkable software, and site licenses.
Support should include technical support and comprehensible documentation.
Areas that may cause problems in software quality include software and hardware which may have been rushed to production, manufacturer greed, technical incompetence in creating products, and lack of instructional design.
Guidelines for Setting Up a Software Library
Consult the school librarian for knowledge on cataloging and advice on timesaving techniques.
Choose the location for the collection wisely.
Use a database software program to keep records of the software.
Catalog the software.
Decide how the software is to be stored.
Protect the collection from dust, dirt, and magnetic fields.
Separate the computer disks from the documentation and serial numbers for security reasons.
Devise a set of rules for software use.
Create a policy and procedures manual on who will be responsible for the collection; procedures needed to use it; verifying that the software works; and reporting technical problems.
