| Human Anatomy, 6/e Kent Van De Graaff,
Weber State University
Cytology
Chapter SummaryIntroduction to Cytology
- Cells are the structural
and functional units of the body. Cellular function is referred to as metabolism
and the study of cells is referred to as cytology.
- Cellular function depends
on the specific membranes and organelles characteristic of each type of cell.
- All cells have structural
modifications that serve functional purposes.
Cellular Chemistry
- Four elements (oxygen,
carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen) compose over 95% of the body's mass and are
linked together to form inorganic and organic compounds.
- Water is the most abundant
inorganic compound in cells and is an excellent solvent.
- Water is important
in temperature control and hydrolysis.
- Dehydration, a condition
in which fluid loss exceeds fluid intake, may be a serious problem, especially
in infants.
- Electrolytes are inorganic
compounds that form ions when dissolved in water.
- The three classes
of electrolytes are acids, bases, and salts.
- Electrolytes are
important in maintaining pH, in conducting electrical currents, and in
regulating the activity of enzymes.
- Proteins are organic
compounds that may exist by themselves or be conjugated with other compounds.
- Proteins are important
structural components of the body and are necessary for cellular growth,
repair, and division.
- Enzymes and hormones
are examples of specialized proteins.
- Carbohydrates are organic
compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen
to oxygen.
- The carbohydrate
group includes the starches and sugars.
- Carbohydrates are
the most abundant source of cellular energy.
- Lipids are organic fats
and fat-related substances.
- Lipids are composed
primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
- Lipids serve as an
important source of energy, form parts of membranes, and protect and insulate
various parts of the body.
Cellular Structure
- A cell is composed of
a cell membrane, cytoplasm and organelles, and a nucleus.
- The cell membrane, composed
of phospholipid and protein molecules, encloses the contents of the cell and
regulates the passage of substances into and out of the cell.
- The permeability
of the cell membrane depends on its structure, the size of the molecules,
ionic charge, lipid solubility, and the presence of carrier molecules.
- Cell membranes may
be specialized with such structures as microvilli, sacs, and hair cells.
- Cytoplasm refers to the
material between the cell membrane and the nucleus. Nucleoplasm is the material
within the nucleus. Protoplasm is a collective term for both the cytoplasm
and nucleoplasm.
- Organelles are specialized
components within the cytoplasm of cells.
- Endoplasmic reticulum
provides a framework within the cytoplasm and forms a site for the attachment
of ribosomes. It functions in the synthesis of lipids and proteins and
in cellular transport.
- Ribosomes are particles
of protein and RNA that function in protein synthesis. The protein particles
may be used within the cell or secreted.
- The Golgi complex
consists of membranous vesicles that synthesize glycoproteins and secrete
lipids. The Golgi complex is extensive in secretory cells, such as those
of the pancreas and salivary glands.
- Mitochondria are
membranous sacs that consist of outer and inner mitochondrial layers and
folded membranous extensions of the inner layer called cristae. The mitochondria
produce ATP and are called the "powerhouses" of a cell.
- Lysosomes are spherical
bodies that contain digestive enzymes. They are abundant in the phagocytic
white blood cells.
- Peroxisomes are enzyme-containing
membranous sacs that are abundant in the kidneys and liver. Some of the
enzymes in peroxisomes generate hydrogen peroxide, and one of them, catalase,
breaks down excess hydrogen peroxide.
- The centrosome is
the dense area of cytoplasm near the nucleus that contains the centrioles.
The paired centrioles play an important role in cell division.
- Vacuoles are membranous
sacs that function as storage chambers.
- Fibrils and microtubules
provide support in the form of a cytoskeleton.
- Cilia and flagella
are projections of the cell that have the same basic structure and that
function in producing movement.
- The cell nucleus is enclosed
in a nuclear membrane that controls the movement of substances between the
nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
- The nucleoli are
small bodies of protein and RNA within the nucleus that produce ribosomes.
- Chromatin is a coiled
fiber of protein and DNA that shortens to form chromosomes during cell
reproduction.
Cell Cycle - The cell cycle consists
of growth, synthesis, and mitosis.
- Growth is the increase
in cellular mass that results from metabolism. Synthesis is the production
of DNA and RNA to regulate cellular activity. Mitosis is the splitting
of the cell's nucleus and cytoplasm that results in the formation of two
diploid cells.
- Mitosis permits an
increase in the number of cells (body growth) and allows for the replacement
of damaged, diseased, or worn-out cells.
- A DNA molecule is in
the shape of a double helix. The structural unit of the molecule is a nucleotide,
which consists of deoxyribose (sugar), phosphate, and a nitrogenous base.
- Cell division consists
of a division of the chromosomes (mitosis) and a division of the cytoplasm
(cytokinesis). The stages of mitosis include prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase.
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