12.1 Genetics in Species and Populations
12.2 The Biological Species Concept
Gene and Allele Frequencies
Subspecies, Breeds, Varieties, Strains, and Races
12.3 How Genetic Diversity Comes About
Mutations
Sexual Reproduction
Migration
The Importance of Population Size
12.4 Why Genetically Distinct Populations Exist
Adaptation to Local Environmental Conditions
The Founder Effect
Genetic Bottleneck
Barriers to Movement
12.5 Genetic Diversity in Domesticated Plants and Animals
Cloning
Selective Breeding
Genetic Engineering
The Impact of Monoculture
12.6 Is It a Species or Not? The Evidence
12.7 Human Population Genetics
12.8 Ethics and Human Population Genetics
OUTLOOKS 12.1: Your Skin Color, Gene Frequency Changes, and Natural Selection
OUTLOOKS 12.2: Biology, Race, and Racism
HOW SCIENCE WORKS 12.1: The Legal Implications
of Defining a Species
HOW SCIENCE WORKS 12.2: Bad Science: A Brief History of the Eugenics Movement
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