| Analogy | A comparison of things that are claimed to be similar in some respect, 70, 175, 323, 423
|  | | | | A priori probability | A kind of probability that can be calculated prior to, and independently of, sensory observation, 343--348
| | | | | Argument | A claim defended with reasons. More precisely, an argument is a set of statements, one of which (called the conclusion) is claimed or intended to be supported by the others (called the premises), 25, 50; cogent, 82--83, 222--223, 310, 312; complex, 32--33; deductive, 52--67, 83; explanation and, 42--43; inductive, 52--62, 67, 71, 83, 305--350; invalid, 74--78, 83; not a fight, 407--409; simple, 32--33; sound, 78, 83, 222--223, 310; strong, 78, 83, 222, 305, 312; uncogent, 82--83, 312; unsound, 78, 83; valid, 74--78, 83, 222, 276, 286; weak, 79-83, 305, 312
| | | | | Argument from analogy | An argument in which the conclusion is claimed to depend on an analogy (i.e., a comparison or similarity) between two or more things, 70-71, 323-333; constructing, 332-333; evaluating, 325-329; in law, 330; in ethics, 330
| | | | | Causal argument | An argument that asserts or denies that something causes, has caused, or will cause something else, 69, 334--340
| | | | | Cogent argument | An inductive argument that is strong and has all true premises, 82--83, 310, 312
| | | | | Control group | In an experimental study or clinical trial, a group of subjects closely resembling the experimental group that serves as a baseline comparison when the results are evaluated, 338, 509--510
| | | | | Correlation | A relationship in which things or events are frequently or always found to go together, 338--340
| | | | | Diminishing marginal value | The principle that as quantity increases, relative value tends to decrease, 346--347
| | | | | Double-blind study | A experimental study in which neither the subjects nor the researchers that work directly with the subjects know which subjects are members of the experimental group and which are members of the control group, 338, 509
| | | | | Epistemic probability | The kind of probability we assign to statements we may have good reason to believe but to which we cannot assign a probability on any truly mathematical basis, 342
| | | | | Expected value | The payoff or loss you can expect from making a bet, 345--347
| | | | | Experimental group | In an experimental study, the group of subjects that receives the active medication or treatment being studied, 338, 509--510
| | | | | Gambler's fallacy | The mistaken belief that a past event has an impact on a current random event, 344
| | | | | Hasty generalization | A fallacy that occurs when an arguer draws a general conclusion (i.e., a conclusion of the form "All A's are B's" or "Most A's are B's") from a sample that is biased or too small, 172--173, 188, 310
| | | | | Indicator words | Words or phrases that provide clues when a premise or conclusion is being offered, 29-31, 306
| | | | | Inductive argument | An argument in which the conclusion is claimed or intended to follow probably from the premises, 52-62, 67-71, 83, 94, 305; common patterns of, 67-71
| | | | | Inductive generalization | An argument that uses evidence about a limited number of people or things of a certain type to make a claim about a larger group of people or things of that type, 67--68, 71, 306--317; evaluating, 309--312; and opinion polls, 313--317
| | | | | Law of large numbers | A statistical principle, according to which the proximity of theoretically predicted and actual percentages tends to increase as the sample size grows, 344-345
| | | | | Placebo | A sugar pill or other inactive substance, often used in controlled experiments to determine the effectiveness of a treatment or drug, 338, 509
| | | | | Placebo effect | An improvement or other change in a patient's condition produced by an inactive substance and thus due to the expectations of the patient rather than to any active treatment or medication the patient may be receiving, 338, 509
| | | | | Population as a whole | The larger set of members from which a sample is drawn, 306
| | | | | Questionable cause | A fallacy that occurs when an arguer claims without sufficient evidence that one thing is the cause of something else, 171--172, 334--335
| | | | | Reference class | In statistics, the group to which one's statistics apply, 320--321
| | | | | Relative frequency probability | The kind of probability that takes information about a group as a whole and applies it to an individual case based on accumulated data derived from what has already been observed in the group, 342
| | | | | Relative value | The value a bet has in relation to an individual's own needs, preferences, and resources, 346--347
| | | | | Reliable argument | An inductive argument that is strong and such that a rational person would rely upon it in practical decision-making, 319. See also Strong and reliable argument
| | | | | Representative sample | A set of observed cases that accurately reflects relevant characteristics of the population as a whole, 311--312
| | | | | Sample population | The set of members (selected from the population as a whole) that has been studied or observed, 306
| | | | | Sound argument | A deductive argument that is valid and has all true premises, 78, 83, 95, 310
| | | | | Statistical argument | An argument that argues from premises regarding a percentage of a population to a conclusion about an individual member of that population or some part of that population, 67, 70--71, 317--321
| | | | | Strict necessity test | A test for determining whether an argument is deductive or inductive. According to the strict necessity test, if the conclusion of an argument follows from the premises with strict logical necessity, then the argument should be regarded as deductive, 56--58, 305; exceptions to, 61, 94
| | | | | Strong and reliable argument | An inductive argument in which the conclusion follows probably from the premises and is such that a reasonable person would rely upon it in practical matters, 319, 321
| | | | | Strong and unreliable argument | An inductive argument in which the conclusion follows probably from the premises but is not such that a reasonable person would rely upon it in practical matters, 319, 312
| | | | | Strong argument | An inductive argument in which the conclusion follows probably from the premises, 78--83, 95, 305
| | | | | Uncogent argument | An inductive argument that is weak or has at least one false premise, or both, 82-83, 310, 312
| | | | | Unreliable argument | An inductive argument such that a reasonable person would not rely upon it in practical decision-making, 319
| | | | | Unsound argument | A deductive argument that is invalid or has at least one false premise, or both, 78, 83, 310, 312
| | | | | Weak analogy | A fallacy that occurs when an arguer's conclusion depends on a comparison of things that aren't relevantly similar, 175--177, 188, 326
| | | | | Weak argument | An inductive argument in which the conclusion does not follow probably from the premises, 79, 83, 305, 312
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2002 McGraw-Hill Higher Education