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| Learning refers to any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about through experience. One type of learning is called classical conditioning. In this type of learning, a previously neutral stimulus called a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that elicits an unlearned or unconditioned response (UCR). Eventually, the CS comes to elicit a conditioned response (CR) that is identical or very similar to the UCR. Classical conditioning occurs because of the association in time of a neutral stimulus and a stimulus that already elicits the response. Contemporary research indicates that classical conditioning may play a role in resistance to disease and sexual arousal. Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior lead to changes in the probability of its occurrence. Positive reinforcements increase the probability of a response. Two important issues involving the use of positive reinforcement are the timing and consistency of reinforcements. Primary reinforcers, such as food and water, are innately reinforcing; secondary reinforcers are learned. There are four different schedules of reinforcement, each resulting in different patterns of behavior. The schedules are fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval. Shaping refers to the process of reinforcing behaviors that are progressively more similar to the target response. Negative reinforcement occurs when the reinforcing consequence is (1) the removal of a negative event, also called escape conditioning, or (2) the avoidance of a negative event, also called avoidance conditioning. Punishment is a negative consequence of a behavior that reduces the frequency of the behavior. Stimulus discrimination occurs when a response is more likely in the presence of a specific stimulus than in the presence of other stimuli. Stimulus generalization has occurred when an individual responds to similar but different stimuli. When a learned response stops occurring because the aspect of the environment that originally caused the learning has changed, the process is called extinction. Extinction is often slowed because of spontaneous recovery and disinhibition. Psychologists disagree about whether learning results from neural connections between specific stimuli and specific responses or whether learning is a change in cognition. Research that supports the cognitive view includes Tolman's studies of place learning and latent learning, Köhler's studies of insight learning, and Bandura's work on modeling. The ability of humans to learn from experience is not limitless; it is influenced in a number of ways by biological factors. Superstitious behavior is learned through flukes in positive reinforcement. |