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| Cognition refers to the process by which information is obtained through the senses, transformed through the processes of perception and thinking, stored and retrieved through the processes of memory, and used in the processes of problem solving and language. The basic units of thinking are called concepts. Concepts are categories of things, events, or qualities linked together by some common feature or features. Some concepts are based on a single common feature, while others are more complex. Not all concepts are equally easy to learn; some are more natural than others. Natural concepts are both basic and prototypical. Problem solving is the use of information to reach a goal that is blocked. Problem solving uses cognitive operations, which include formulating the problem, understanding the elements of the problem, and generating and evaluating alternative solutions. The term artificial intelligence describes computers that are programmed to think like humans. Algorithmic and heuristic operations are two types of cognitive strategies used to solve problems. Expert problem solvers generally excel in a limited number of areas, they work quickly, they spend time analyzing a problem, they recognize more patterns and they use self-monitoring. Creative problem solving requires the ability to think in flexible and unusual ways, called divergent thinking; problem solving that is more logical and conventional is called convergent thinking. Language is a symbolic code used in human communication. The meaning that is communicated is called the semantic content of language. Human language is highly efficient and generative; an infinite set of utterances can be made using a finite set of elements and rules. These rules are referred to as syntax. Phonemes are the smallest units of sound, while morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language. Psychologists have long been interested in the relationship between language and thought. The Whorfian or linguistic relativity hypothesis states that the structure of language influences thinking. Controversy continues over whether animals are able to understand syntax. Intelligence refers to the cognitive abilities of an individual to learn from experience, to reason well, and to cope effectively with the demands of daily living. Some psychologists believe that intelligence is a single factor, while others view intelligence as many different kinds of intellectual abilities. Gardner suggests there are seven independent types of intelligence, whereas Sternberg focuses on the cognitive components of intelligence. The intelligence quotient (IQ) is obtained by dividing an individual's mental age by his or her chronological age. This approach to calculating intellectual ability has been replaced by the deviation IQ, which compares individual scores to a normal distribution. Useful IQ tests must be standardized, objective, reliable, valid, and evaluated against proper norms. Some researchers have focused on "everyday intelligence," also called tacit intelligence. An individual's level of intelligence is determined both by inherited and environmental factors. Some researchers believe that intelligence scores have risen dramatically over the past several generations. The publication of The Bell Curve has sparked controversy concerning the relationship between heredity and intelligence, and the impact of intelligence on economic well-being. Mental retardation varies in degree, from mild to profound. Retardation can result from a variety of causes, including genetic factors, birth trauma, maternal drug use, or early deprivation. At the other extreme in intelligence, a longitudinal study of gifted children has found these individuals to be functioning well in most aspects of life. By increasing one's mental efforts, improving problem formulation and breaking out of mental sets, it is possible to improve one's critical thinking skills. |