1. In 1848 a series of revolutions spread from Paris throughout Europe. Social, political, and national divisions widened as the revolutionaries acquired power, so by August 1849 conservative forces had defeated these inexperienced and divided revolutionary regimes.

2. Nationalism became a powerful and widespread movement.

3. In France, Louis Napoleon combined universal male suffrage, elements of representative government, economic growth, and social benefits with stability and preservation of the social order.

4. Italian and German nationalism--led with political skill by Cavour and Bismarck, respectively--resulted in the unification of Italy in 1861 and of Germany in 1871.

5. Many European states attempted to strengthen and modernize their institutions.

6. Cultural institutions, professions, and styles proliferated during the nineteenth century.