Contrast Maslow's, Alderfer's, and McClelland's need theories. Maslow proposed that motivation is a function of five basic needs arranged in a prepotent hierarchy. The concept of a stair-step hierarchy has not stood up well under research. Alderfer concluded that three core needs explain behavior—existence, relatedness, and growth. He proposed that more than one need can be activated at a time and frustration of higher-order needs can influence the desire for lower-level needs. McClelland argued that motivation and performance vary according to the strength of an individual's need for achievement. High achievers prefer tasks of moderate difficulty, situations under their control, and a desire for more performance feedback than low achievers. Top managers should have a high need for power coupled with a low need for affiliation.
Explain the practical significance of Herzberg's distinction between motivators and hygiene factors. Herzberg believes job satisfaction motivates better job performance. His hygiene factors, such as policies, supervision, and salary, erase sources of dissatisfaction. On the other hand, his motivators, such as achievement, responsibility, and recognition, foster job satisfaction. Although Herzberg's motivator–hygiene theory of job satisfaction has been criticized on methodological grounds, it has practical significance for job enrichment.
Discuss the role of perceived inequity in employee motivation. Equity theory is a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges. On the job, feelings of inequity revolve around a person's evaluation of whether he or she receives adequate rewards to compensate for his or her contributive inputs. People perform these evaluations by comparing he perceived fairness of their employment exchange with that of relevant others. Perceived inequity creates motivation to restore equity.
Explain the differences among distributive, procedural, and interactional justice. Distributive, procedural, and interactional justice are the three key components underlying organizational justice. Distributive justice reflects the perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed. Procedural justice represents the perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions. Interactional justice entails the perceived fairness of a decision maker's behavior in the process of decision making.
Describe the practical lessons derived from equity theory. Equity theory has at least nine practical implications. First, because people are motivated to resolve perceptions of inequity, managers should not discount employees' feelings and perceptions when trying to motivate workers. Second, managers should pay attention to employees' perceptions of what is fair and equitable. It is the employee's view of reality that counts when trying to motivate someone, according to equity theory. Third, employees should be given a voice in decisions that affect them. Fourth, employees should be given the opportunity to appeal decisions that affect their welfare. Fifth, employees are more likely to accept and support organizational change when they believe it is implemented fairly and when it produces equitable outcomes. Sixth, managers can promote cooperation and teamwork among group members by treating them equitably. Seventh, treating employees inequitably can lead to litigation and costly court settlements. Eighth, perceptions of justice are influenced by the leadership behavior exhibited by managers. Finally, managers need to pay attention to the organization's climate for justice because it influences employee attitudes and behavior.
Explain Vroom's expectancy theory, and review its practical implications. Expectancy theory assumes motivation is determined by one's perceived chances of achieving valued outcomes. Vroom's expectancy model of motivation reveals how effort→performance expectancies and performance→outcome instrumentalities influence the degree of effort expended to achieve desired (positively valent) outcomes. Managers are advised to enhance effort→performance expectancies by helping employees accomplish their performance goals. With respect to instrumentalities and valences, managers should attempt to link employee performance and valued rewards.
Explain how goal setting motivates an individual, and review the four practical lessons from goal-setting research. Four motivational mechanisms of goal setting are as follows: (1) Goals direct one's attention, (2) goals regulate effort, (3) goals increase one's persistence, and (4) goals encourage development of goal-attainment strategies and action plans. Research identifies four practical lessons about goal setting. First, specific high goals lead to greater performance. Second, feedback enhances the effect of specific, difficult goals. Third, participative goals, assigned goals, and self-set goals are equally effective. Fourth, goal commitment and monetary incentives affect goal-setting outcomes.
Review the mechanistic, motivational, biological, and perceptual-motor approaches to job design. The mechanistic approach is based on industrial engineering and scientific management and focuses on increasing efficiency, flexibility, and employee productivity. Motivational approaches aim to improve employees' affective and attitudinal reactions and behavioral outcomes. Job enlargement, job enrichment, job-rotation, and a contingency approach called the job characteristics model are motivational approaches to job design. The biological approach focuses on designing the work environment to reduce employees' physical strain, fatigue, and health complaints. The perceptual-motor approach emphasizes the reliability of work outcomes.
Specify issues that should be addressed before implementing a motivational program. Managers need to consider the variety of causes of poor performance. Motivation is only one of several factors that influence performance. Managers should not ignore the many individual differences that affect motivation. The goal-setting process should be consistent with the four practical lessons derived from goal-setting research. The method used to evaluate performance as well as the link between performance and rewards must be examined. Performance must be accurately evaluated, and rewards should be equitably distributed. Rewards should also be directly tied to performance. Finally, managers should recognize that employee motivation and behavior are influenced by organizational culture.
