Chapter Summary

The authors state that one crucial question concerns how we account for the numerous differences in attitudes, behavior, perceptions, and aspirations of the sexes. Are the differences a reflection of gender (society) or sex (biology)? The authors discuss the views of Freud and the sociobiologists who emphasize the biological differences between women and men and observe that the implications for behavior are controversial. At the same time, evidence from such researchers as Margaret Mead and Fausto-Sterling shows that many differences between men and women can be accounted for in terms of sociocultural factors. Clearly, there are some differences between males and females both in the structure and functioning of the brain, but the implications of these differences are unclear and controversial, and new research continues to modify some of the conclusions about differences.

Women have suffered discrimination that has served to contradict a desired quality of life for many of them. They have been penalized in the labor market through discriminatory practices involving hiring, salary, promotion, and career opportunities--all of these seriously undermining the American ideology of equal opportunity. At the same time, the chances for women to find employment today are actually better than those of men, but, once in a job, women suffer more discrimination in terms of career, income, educational attainment, and political participation in comparison to their male counterparts. Furthermore, there is a contradiction between our belief in the dignity of human beings and the ideology about women in our society: A belief in the inferiority of women continues and is reflected in such behaviors as sexual harassment.

The normative role of women--such as the traditional homemaker role--is one of the most important structural factors perpetuating inequality and other problems. Social expectations, for better or worse, have force. Thus, serious implications occur when parents discourage their daughters from striving for certain goals that would be achievable were they socialized otherwise. Schools have been a guilty party to the teaching of generations of little girls to be dependent and passive. The mass media is also part of this puzzle. As research has shown, even picture books for preschool children are conducive to subjugation of the female spirit. The combined forces of economic, political, religious, and educational institutions have aided and abetted long-standing male dominance in nearly all walks of American life. There are various myths that continue to reinforce many aspects of social inequality affecting women.

The authors discuss consciousness-raising groups, child-care centers, changes in education, comparable worth, voluntary affirmative action programs, policies and practices for dealing with sexual harassment, anti-discrimination laws, and equal career opportunities. They point out that affirmative-action programs are now under attack from conservatives.