Learning Objectives

• compare and contrast Spencer and Comte;
• explain Spencer's distinct contribution to sociological theory, including his efforts to legitimate the discipline as a science using biology and psychology;
• explain Spencer's concerns regarding sociological methodology, including the various biases that sociologists should be aware of when conducting research;
• describe the evolution of society according to Spencer, utilizing his ideas of integration, heterogeneity, definiteness, and coherence;
• discuss Spencer's notion of society as an organism and the roles of cooperation and structures in the evolution of society;
• distinguish between regulative and sustaining structures and apply these concepts to discuss the differences between militant and industrial societies; and
• discuss Spencer's ethics and politics, especially how both influenced his sociology theory.