How do cognitive, affective, and physiological factors impact learning?Individuals exhibit diverse styles of learning that are affected by attitudes, reasoning and physical differences. Cognitive factors impact the way students organize and retain information. Affective factors shape motivation and the ability to handle frustration. Finally, physiological differences influence body needs, from sleep to eating habits to the most comfortable room temperature. Identifying a single optimal educational climate is not possible, since individuals differ so markedly in these three factors. Nonetheless, many schools presume that the ideal learning climate features quiet, well-lighted rooms, with difficult subjects being taught early in the morning in forty- or fifty-minute periods. Such a"one-size-fits-all" model does not work for many students. How can teachers respond to different learning styles?Teachers may need to experiment with the classroom environment, including temperature, lighting, and noise level. Teachers may want to plan activities of varying lengths, to accommodate students with different attention spans or tolerance for sitting quietly. Teachers can also offer instructional activities that complement various learning styles, such as visual, kinesthetic, or auditory. What are the classroom implications of Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences?Just as some educators challenge the concept of a single appropriate learning style, others challenge the notion of a single type of intelligence. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences identifies at least eight kinds of intelligence, ranging from the traditional verbal and mathematical to musical, physical, and interpersonal abilities. Teachers can plan their lessons to incorporate and develop these different intelligences described by Gardner (e.g., ask students to re-enact historical events through dance). How does emotional intelligence influence teaching and learning?Daniel Goleman advocates that schools concern themselves with emotional as well as intellectual development, for he believes that emotional intelligence may better predict future success than IQ scores. Teachers can increase a student's emotional intelligence quotient (EQ) by developing classroom strategies that help students understand their emotions,"read" the emotions of others, and learn how to manage relationships. How can teachers meet the diverse needs of an increasingly multicultural student population?Changing patterns of immigration and birth rates have produced increasingly diverse classrooms. Generalized knowledge about different groups can be useful for instructional planning. Stereotypes, however, represent dangerous overstatements about groups and members of groups, and teachers must be wary of the damaging impact such stereotypes can have on both teaching and learning. Early in the twenty-first century, one-third of all students will be of color, both enriching and challenging our schools. Teachers of diverse student populations must work to ensure equitable distribution of teacher attention, the accommodation and nurturing of different learning styles, and a curriculum that fairly represents the contributions and experiences of diverse groups. What are the different levels of multicultural education?James Banks identifies four levels of multicultural education: contributions, additive, transformation, and social action. While the contributions and additive approaches are more superficial, the transformation and social action approaches hold more promise for ensuring that students of all backgrounds experience an equal opportunity to learn. What are the political and instructional issues surrounding bilingual education?Educating limited English proficiency (LEP) students has been both an educational and a legal challenge in America since the colonial period. In Lau v. Nichols (1974), the Supreme Court ruled that schools were deficient in their treatment of students with limited English proficiency. Congress subsequently passed the Equal Educational Opportunities Act. Many districts have redoubled their efforts in bilingual education. Some teach students in their native language only until they learn English (the transitional approach), other schools use both languages in the classroom (the maintenance approach), some supplement with English as a Second Language (ESL) classes, while still others opt for nonbilingual means, such as immersion and"submersion." Studies suggest that many bilingual programs fall short of their goals. A political backlash against maintenance programs, and the desire to have all students speak English as soon as possible, has fanned the flames of an"English as the official language" movement in California and elsewhere. The future direction of bilingual education may be as much a political determination as an instructional one. How are the needs of special learners met in today’s classrooms?Legislation and court decisions have required schools to provide students with appropriate education in the least restrictive environment. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) guarantees students with disabilities access to public education, and requires that individualized education programs be developed to document the school's efforts in meeting the needs of these students. Despite the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, there are no easy answers to issues such as the identification of special needs children, the best ways to educate these learners, the wisdom of inclusion or mainstreaming, and the training and resources available to teachers. Few resources are provided for gifted and talented students in many of the nation's school districts. When their needs are not met, these exceptional learners may become apathetic, bored, and alienated. Gifted and talented programs usually promote one of two strategies: enrichment or acceleration. While many people worry that acceleration will lead to social maladjustment, research indicates that acceleration can have a positive impact on gifted students. |