What rituals and routines shape classroom life? Although teachers are enormously busy in the classroom, students spend much of their time sitting still and waiting, denying their needs, and becoming distracted.
How is class time related to student achievement? John Goodlad and others have documented that while some teachers use instructional time efficiently, others are sidetracked by behavioral problems and administrative routine. Efficient teachers advance student learning.
How does the teacher's gatekeeping function influence classroom roles? Ned Flanders found that two-thirds of the classroom time is talk; two-thirds of that talk is from the teacher. Teachers also initiate about 85 percent of Bellack's "pedagogical cycles," although the majority of questions they ask require only rote memory. Ironically, while a major goal of education is to increase students' curiosity, it is the teachers, not the students, who are the gatekeepers of what will be learned and which students will be allowed to actively participate.
What is tracking, and what are its advantages and disadvantages? The practice of placing students into a specific class based on ability is called tracking. Jeannie Oakes found that a disproportionate number of poor children and students of color are labeled as slow learners, even when their achievement levels are strong. Students tracked into slower classes have weaker teachers, fewer opportunities, lower self-esteem and achievement. Yet many educators and parents believe that heterogeneous classes are also problematic, and some type of ability grouping is needed.
Why has "detracking" become a popular movement? Supporters of detracking call for more individualization of instruction, more authentic learning, and less reliance on a "one size fits all" view of teaching. By 2000, only a small number of schools continued to use the term "tracking," although many continued the practice under terms such as "ability grouping."
How do peer groups impact elementary school life? Peer pressure wields great power in and out of school. A gender wall rigidly segregates young children, with boys forming hierarchic societies and girls creating pairs of best friends. Compared to children in the early 1980s, in the late 1990s, elementary children spent more time in day care, in school, studying, reading, playing sports, and involved in personal care, while spending less time watching television, enjoying leisure time, or in religious activities.
In what ways does the adolescent culture shape teenage perceptions and behaviors? Sociologist James Coleman described adolescence as an intense, almost "closed" social system, where peer status dominates. Ralph Keyes suggests that those socially frustrated in high school may be more motivated to succeed as adults. Patricia Hersch describes the lack of community or parental monitoring in contemporary culture, a practice that contributes to additional adolescent problems.
What steps can educators take to create a more supportive school environment? Frances Ianni calls for schools to create "youth charters," a coordinated network of social services and psychological resources to nurture at-risk children. The Carnegie Foundation recommends more humane and caring structural changes, such as detracking, cooperative learning, and smaller school units.
What are the characteristics of effective schools? Ron Edmonds set forth a "five-factor theory" of effective schools: (1) strong administrative leadership, (2) clear school goals shared by faculty and administration, (3) a safe and orderly school climate, (4) frequent monitoring and assessment of student progress, and (5) high expectations for student performance. Newer research connects effective schools with early intervention programs, an emphasis on reading and math, smaller schools, smaller classes, increased learning time, assessment of student progress, and expanded teacher training.
