The Big Picture: Chapter Overview

Psychology is a science dedicated to the study of behavior and mental processes. In this chapter you are introduced to the history of this science, a variety of contemporary perspectives in psychology, the positive psychology movement, and an overview of psychology-related careers. At the end of the chapter, the reader learns about the most effective methods of studying and learning.

There are three concepts important to the definition of psychology: science, behavior and mental processes. Psychologists use scientific methods to observe, describe, predict, and explain behaviors and mental processes. Behaviors are actions that can be directly observed, while mental processes are experiences that cannot be observed directly, such as thoughts and feelings.

The history of psychology is rooted in philosophy, biology, and physiology. Rene Descartes and Charles Darwin strongly influenced the origins of psychology. Descartes contributed with his view of a separate mind and body, thus opening the door for studies focusing exclusively on the mind. Darwin proposed that humans are part of an evolutionary process he termed natural selection. This view led psychologists to consider the role of the environment and adaptation in psychology.

In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt developed the first psychology laboratory. Wundt's approach, which emphasized the importance of conscious thought and classification of the mind's structures, was called structuralism. While structuralism focused inside the mind, William James emphasized the functions of the mind in adapting to the environment. James's approach was called functionalism.

Structuralism and functionalism were the first two schools of thought in psychology; however, they are no longer followed. Contemporary psychologists approach the scientific study of behaviors and mental processes from a variety of perspectives and each perspective offers an important piece of the psychology puzzle. As we study these perspectives, we should keep in mind that all the approaches are valid and each has advantages and disadvantages.

Contemporary psychology perspectives can be classified into six approaches:

1. Behavioral Approach:
   1. Behaviorism. The leaders of this perspective, which dominated psychology during the first half of the 20^th century, were John Watson and B. F. Skinner. The focus is on observable responses and environmental determinants.
   2. Social Cognitive Theory. A more recent development of the behaviorist approach, researched by Albert Bandura, integrates the role of environmental factors and mental processes in understanding behaviors.
2. Psychodynamic Approach. Sigmund Freud developed this perspective that focuses on the role of unconscious influences on how we think and act. Early life experiences are considered important determinants of adult psychology in this approach.
3. Cognitive Approach. The focus here is on mental processes with an emphasis on attention, perception, memory, thinking, and solving problems.
4. Behavioral Neuroscience Approach. This approach studies the biological basis of behavior and mental process, specifically focusing on the role of the nervous system.
5. Evolutionary Psychology Approach. This perspective focuses on the adaptive aspects of our psychology, how adapting to the demands of our environment has shaped our repertoire of behaviors and mental processes.
6. Sociocultural Approach. This perspective recognizes that social and cultural contexts influence our psychology, this is, how we act, think, and feel.

During the 20^th century, psychology focused mostly on solving psychological problems, such as mental disorders and social disturbances. Most people associate psychologists with the changing of bad behaviors and problematic mental processes; however, psychologists also study and work with psychologically healthy people. The following two movements have focuses on the study of healthy psychology:

1. Humanistic Psychology. An approach proposed in the middle of the 20^th century. This movement was led by Maslow and Rogers. They emphasized the free will of people and their capacity for understanding and solving their own challenges.
2. Positive Psychology. This movement emerged at the beginning of the 21^st century and it attempts to promote the study of positive psychological phenomena such as creativity, optimism, and effective social relations.

A person with an undergraduate degree in psychology will be able to apply the knowledge of behaviors and mental processes to a variety of job possibilities in business, service areas, and research. However, having a graduate degree in psychology expands job opportunities and options. A student considering graduate studies in psychology has many areas of specialization from which to choose. Clinical and counseling psychologists are the areas we most commonly associate with psychology; they specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems. An experimental psychologist uses the experiment research method to study basic psychology issues such as perception and thinking. The Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology focuses on the biological basis of psychology, such as the role of the brain in behaviors. A developmental psychologist studies the process of human development across the lifespan, from childhood to late adulthood. Social psychology is dedicated to the study of social pressure, how we influence each other's behaviors and mental processes. Personality psychology explores the role of stable personality characteristics in our psychology. Health psychologists study the relationship between our psychological experience and our physical well-being or health;. for example, they study how the psychological experience of stress is related to health problems. Community psychologists study the relationship between psychological well-being and the community. One of their areas of focus is the issue of proper access to psychological care services for the people in the community who need them. School and educational psychology are two separate areas but they have in common the interest on the psychological experience of people in educational institutions. School psychologists are often found in schools working with behaviors and mental processes that interfere with a successful academic experience. Educational psychologists generally do research on the psychological factors involved in the academic experience. Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychologists study and deal with psychology in the workplace. An I/O Psychologist may help an organization design an optimal process for hiring new employees or may work inside a company, advising employees on how to improve their work environment and productivity. Environmental psychology studies the relationship between people and their physical environment. For example, an environmental psychologist might study the impact of the color of walls on the emotions of a person. Cross-cultural psychology explores the variations of behaviors and mental processes across cultures. The psychology of women focuses on the experiences of women and other factors that may explain gender differences in behaviors and mental processes. Forensic psychologists study the role of psychology in the legal system and may serve as consultants and expert witnesses in the courtroom. Sport psychologists explore the behaviors and mental processes involved in optimizing performance in sport events; they often advise athletes and develop strategies to enhance their performance.

Getting the most out of this course will strongly depend on the studying strategies that you use. Based on psychological research, here are some strategies that make studying more effective. Chart monthly, weekly, and daily the class-related tasks, such as tests, and schedule the time that will be dedicated to studying. Distribute your study sessions across time--learning takes time. Minimize distractions while studying. Get an overall idea of the content of a chapter before you start reading the specifics (it would be a good idea to read this section, The Big Picture: Chapter Overview in the Study Guide, before you start reading each chapter in the textbook). Make an effort to apply the reading material to your personal experience, as these associations will increase the chances that you will remember the material in the future. Finally, review! Use alternative methods to revisit the material, such as doing the exercises at the end of the chapter, visiting the online resources that accompany the textbook, and testing yourself with the Study Guide exercises.