The spread and influence of industrial unionism, especially in Britain.
The schisms among European socialists and Marxists produced by conflicting views of parliamentary socialism and trade unionism.
The campaign for women's rights, such as suffrage.
The impact of Darwin's theory of evolution, genetics, the new cultural anthropology, Freudian psychoanalysis on ideas about race, religion, and human rationality as well as Einstein's new theories in physics.
New currents in philosophy and the arts, which included agnosticism, thinkers like Nietzsche, and Impressionism.
Protestant and Catholic responses to the scientific and cultural trends of the age.
Jewish emancipation and the rise of Anti-Semitism in Europe.
How classical liberalism was undermined.
The new liberalism and the appearance of the welfare state, both of which came in response to the insecurities produced by the free economy.
The debate over the rationality or irrationality of human beings. The persistence of liberalism in spite of the challenges to it.
