Chapter Overviews

Chapter 1: The First Civilizations and Empires

Chapter Overviews

The first humans lived as nomads who focused on basic needs—food, shelter, and safety. Only millions of years later did they develop the skills and tools necessary to engage in agriculture and to build the first civilizations.

Section 1 The First Humans
Our knowledge of the earliest humanlike creatures that walked upright, or hominids, is based on discoveries of fossils and artifacts. Scientists believe the earliest hominids lived in Africa four million years ago. Over the next several million years, more advanced hominids appeared—first Homo habilis, then Homo erectus, and then Homo sapiens. From Homo sapiens, two subgroups emerged—first the Neanderthals and then Homo sapiens sapiens. All humans today belong to the subgroup Homo sapiens sapiens, which means “wise, wise human.” During the Paleolithic Age (2,500,000 B.C. to 10,000 B.C.), humans invented stone tools that helped them become better hunters. The Neolithic Revolution, the period of human history from 8000 B.C. to 4000 B.C., is marked by the rise of systematic agriculture—the domestication of animals and the growing of crops on a regular basis. The ability to farm gave rise to permanent settlements. As cultures became more complex, civilizations developed. Large numbers of human beings began to share common elements, including cities, government, religion, social structure, writing, and art.

Section 2 Western Asia and Egypt
Located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, Mesopotamia was the site of several of the earliest known civilizations—Sumer, Akkad, and Assyria. By 3000 B.C., the Sumerians had built walled city-states and engaged in widespread trade. Like other Mesopotamians, the Sumerians had a theocracy—a government by divine authority. The Sumerians created the cuneiform system of writing and inventions such as the wagon wheel and bronze. Around 2340 B.C., the Akkadians overran the Sumerian city-states. Their leader, Sargon, created the first empire in world history. Hammurabi, the ruler of Babylon, eventually came to power. He is remembered for his strict code of law.

Egyptian civilization centered on the Nile River and its delta. Historians divide early Egyptian civilization into three major periods: the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom. Egyptian kings, called pharaohs, ruled by divine right. Most of the lower classes were peasants who farmed the land and built the pyramids as tombs for mummified pharaohs. Art, science, and a form of writing called hieroglyphics also flourished. After the New Kingdom collapsed around 1070 B.C., Egypt was dominated by a succession of other empires.

The Israelites created the kingdom of Israel, with its capital at Jerusalem. Their religion, Judaism, was the first monotheistic religion and later influenced Christianity and Islam. Religious teachers, or prophets, developed concepts of fairness that became a source for ideals of social justice.

A large army equipped with iron weapons enabled the Assyrians to establish a new empire in Mesopotamia by 700 B.C. After its collapse, the Persian Empire became the leading power. Under Cyrus the Great, the Persians created a state that stretched from Asia Minor to western India. Cyrus ruled with remarkable wisdom and compassion. His successors expanded the empire, relying on a system of provincial governors who collected taxes, provided justice, and recruited soldiers. The Greek ruler Alexander the Great conquered the Persians in the 330s B.C., following struggles over the throne which weakened the monarchy.

Section 3 India and China
As early as 3000 B.C., an advanced civilization known as the Indus, or Harappan, civilization emerged along the Indus River valley. Ruins of two well-planned cities show that inhabitants had a sewage system and other public works. Indo-European nomads known as Aryans migrated into India around 1500 B.C. The Aryans brought Hinduism, the caste system, and eventually the Sanskrit written language with them. In the sixth century B.C., a doctrine called Buddhism appeared. Its founder, Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), preached his Four Noble Truths, emphasizing the need to search for wisdom as a way to end suffering and achieve nirvana. The Mauryan dynasty was the first to rule a centralized Indian Empire. Asoka, considered the greatest ruler in India’s history, converted to Buddhism, was a kind ruler, and greatly expanded the Mauryan Empire’s prosperity. The Guptas established a new Indian dynasty in A.D. 320.

The Shang dynasty created the first flourishing Chinese civilization about 1750 B.C. After the Shang, the Zhou dynasty ruled China for almost 800 years, claiming to rule by a Mandate of Heaven. Two hundred years of civil war followed its collapse. Qin Shihuangdi eventually defeated his rivals and declared himself leader of the new Qin dynasty. Qin created a monetary system and built a vast network of roads. He also expanded the empire and started the building of the Great Wall of China. After Qin’s death, the Han dynasty ruled China for 400 years. Cultural, scientific, and technological achievements were unsurpassed. Confucianism taught the concept of duty and humanity.